What Is Average Life?

The average life is the length of time the principal of a debt issue is expected to be outstanding. Average life does not take into account interest payments, but only principal payments made on the loan or security. In loans, mortgages, and bonds, the average life is the average period of time before the debt is repaid through amortization or sinking fund payments.

Investors and analysts use the average life calculation to measure the risk associated with amortizing bonds, loans, and mortgage-backed securities. The calculation gives investors an idea of how quickly they can expect returns and provides a useful metric for comparing investment options. In general, most investors will choose to receive their financial returns earlier and will, therefore, choose the investment with the shorter average life.

Understanding Average Life

Also called the weighted average maturity and weighted average life, the average life is calculated to determine how long it will take to pay the outstanding principal of a debt issue, such as a Treasury Bill (T-Bill) or bond. While some bonds repay the principal in a lump sum at maturity, others repay the principal in installments over the term of the bond. In cases where the bond’s principal is amortized, the average life allows investors to determine how quickly the principal will be repaid.

The payments received are based on the repayment schedule of the loans backing the particular security, such as with mortgage-backed securities (MBS) and asset-backed securities (ABS). As borrowers make payments on the associated debt obligations, investors are issued payments reflecting a portion of these cumulative interest and principal payments.

Calculating the Average Life on a Bond

To calculate the average life, multiply the date of each payment (expressed as a fraction of years or months) by the percentage of total principal that has been paid by that date, add the results, and divide by the total issue size.

For example, assume an annual-paying four-year bond has a face value of $200 and principal payments of $80 during the first year, $60 for the second year, $40 during the third year, and $20 for the fourth (and final) year. The average life for this bond would be calculated with the following formula:

($80 x 1) + ($60 x 2) + ($40 x 3) + ($20 x 4) = 400

Then divide the weighted total by the bond face value to get the average life. In this example, the average life equals 2 years (400 divided by 200 = 2).

This bond would have an average life of two years against its maturity of four years.

Mortgage-Backed and Asset-Backed Securities

In the case of an MBS or ABS, the average life represents the average length of time required for the associated borrowers to repay the loan debt. An investment in an MBS or ABS involves purchasing a small portion of the associated debt that is packaged within the security.

The risk associated with an MBS or ABS centers on whether the borrower associated with the loan will default. If the borrower fails to make a payment, the investors associated with the security will experience losses. In the financial crisis of 2008, a large number of defaults on home loans, particularly in the subprime market, led to significant losses in the MBS arena.

Special Considerations

While certainly not as dire as default risk, another risk bond investors face is prepayment risk. This occurs when the bond issuer (or the borrower in the case of mortgage-backed securities) pays back the principal earlier than scheduled. These prepayments will reduce the average life of the investment. Because the principal is paid back early, the investor will not receive future interest payments on that part of the principal.

This interest reduction can represent an unexpected challenge for investors of fixed-income securities dependent on a reliable stream of income. For this reason, some bonds with payment risk include prepayment penalties.

What Is the 30-Year Treasury?

The 30-Year Treasury is a U.S. Treasury debt obligation that has a maturity of 30 years. The 30-year Treasury used to be the bellwether U.S. bond but now most consider the 10-year Treasury to be the benchmark.

Understanding the 30-Year Treasury

The U.S. government borrows money from investors by issuing debt securities through its Treasury department. Debt instruments that can be purchased from the government include Treasury bills (T-bills), notes, and Treasury Inflation-Protected Securities (TIPS). T-bills are marketable securities issued for terms of less than a year, and Treasury notes are issued with maturities from two to 10 years.

TIPS are marketable securities whose principal is adjusted by changes in the Consumer Price Index (CPI). When there is inflation, the principal increases. When deflation sets in, the principal decreases. U.S. Treasury securities with longer-term maturities can be purchased as U.S. Savings bonds or Treasury bonds.

Special Considerations

Treasury bonds are long-term debt securities issued with a maturity of 20 years or 30 years from the issue date. These marketable securities pay interest semi-annually, or every six months until they mature. At maturity, the investor is paid the face value of the bond. The 30-year Treasury will generally pay a higher interest rate than shorter Treasuries to compensate for the additional risks inherent in the longer maturity. However, when compared to other bonds, Treasuries are relatively safe because they are backed by the U.S. government.

The price and interest rate of the 30-year Treasury bond is determined at an auction where it is set at either par, premium, or discount to par. If the yield to maturity (YTM) is greater than the interest rate, the price of the bond will be issued at a discount. If the YTM is equal to the interest rate, the price will be equal to par. Finally, if the YTM is less than the interest rate, the Treasury bond price will be sold at a premium to par. In a single auction, a bidder can buy up to $5 million in bonds by non-competitive bidding or up to 35% of the initial offering amount by competitive bidding. In addition, the bonds are sold in increments of $100 and the minimum purchase is $100.

30-Year Treasury vs. Savings Bonds

U.S. Savings bonds, specifically, Series EE Savings bonds, are non-marketable securities that earn interest for 30 years. Interest isn’t paid out periodically. Instead, interest accumulates, and the investor receives everything when they redeem the savings bond. The bond can be redeemed after one year, but if they are sold before five years from the purchase date, the investor will lose the last three months’ interest. For example, an investor who sells the Savings bond after 24 months will only receive interest for 21 months.

Because the U.S. is seen as a very low-risk borrower, many investors see 30-year Treasury interest rates as indicative of the state of the wider bond market. Normally, the interest rate decreases with greater demand for 30-year Treasury securities and rises with lower demand. The S&P U.S. Treasury Bond Current 30-Year Index is a one-security index comprising the most recently issued 30-year U.S. Treasury bond. It is a market value-weighted index that seeks to measure the performance of the Treasury bond market.

What Is an Annual General Meeting (AGM)?

An annual general meeting (AGM) is a yearly gathering of a company’s interested shareholders. At an AGM, the directors of the company present an annual report containing information for shareholders about the company’s performance and strategy.

Shareholders with voting rights vote on current issues, such as appointments to the company’s board of directors, executive compensation, dividend payments, and the selection of auditors.

How an Annual General Meeting (AGM) Works

An annual general meeting, or annual shareholder meeting, is primarily held to allow shareholders to vote on both company issues and the selection of the company’s board of directors. In large companies, this meeting is typically the only time during the year when shareholders and executives interact.

The exact rules governing an AGM vary according to jurisdiction. As outlined by many states in their laws of incorporation, both public and private companies must hold AGMs, though the rules tend to be more stringent for publicly traded companies.

Public companies must file annual proxy statements, known as Form DEF 14A, with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). The filing will specify the date, time, and location of the annual meeting, as well as executive compensation and any material matters of the company concerning shareholder voting and nominated directors.

Annual general meetings (AGMs) are important for the transparency they provide, the ability to include shareholders, as well as bringing management to accountability.

Qualifications for an Annual General Meeting (AGM)

The corporate bylaws that govern a company, along with its jurisdiction, memorandum, and articles of association, contain the rules governing an AGM. For example, there are provisions detailing how far in advance shareholders must be notified of where and when an AGM will be held and how to vote by proxy. In most jurisdictions, the following items, by law, must be discussed at an AGM:

• Minutes of the previous meeting: The minutes of the previous year’s AGM must be presented and approved.
• Financial statements: The company presents its annual financial statements to its shareholders for approval.
• Ratification of the director’s actions: The shareholders approve and ratify (or not) the decisions made by the board of directors over the previous year. This often includes the payment of a dividend.
• Election of the board of directors: The shareholders elect the board of directors for the upcoming year.

Additional Topics Covered at an Annual General Meeting (AGM)

If the company has not been performing well, the AGM is also when shareholders can question the board of directors and management as to why performance has been poor. The shareholders can demand satisfactory answers as well as to inquire about the strategies that management plans to implement to turn the company around.

The AGM is also when shareholders can vote on company matters other than electing the board of directors. For example, if management is contemplating a merger or an acquisition, the proposal can be presented to the shareholders and they can vote on whether or not the company should proceed.

Several other elements may be added to an AGM agenda. Often, the company’s directors and executives use an AGM as their opportunity to share their vision of the company’s future with the shareholders. For example, at the AGM for Berkshire Hathaway, Warren Buffett delivers long speeches on his views of the company and the economy as a whole.

Berkshire Hathaway’s annual gathering has become so popular that it is attended by tens of thousands of people each year, and it’s been dubbed the “Woodstock for Capitalists.”

What Are Affiliated Companies?

Companies are affiliated when one company is a minority shareholder of another. In most cases, the parent company will own less than a 50% interest in its affiliated company. Two companies may also be affiliated if they are controlled by a separate third party. In the business world, affiliated companies are often simply called affiliates.

The term is sometimes used to refer to companies that are related to each other in some way. For example, Bank of America has many different affiliated companies including Bank of America, U.S. Trust, Landsafe, Balboa, and Merrill Lynch.

Companies may be affiliated with one another to get into a new market, to maintain separate brand identities, to raise capital without affecting the parent or other companies, and to save on taxes. In most cases, affiliates are associates or associated companies, which describes an organization whose parent has a minority stake in it.

Understanding Affiliated Companies

There are several ways companies can become affiliated. A company may decide to buy out or take over another one, or it may decide to spin off a portion of its operations into a new affiliate altogether. In either case, the parent company generally keeps its operations separate from its affiliates. Since the parent company has a minority ownership, its liability is limited, and the two companies keep separate management teams.

Affiliates are a common way for parent businesses to enter foreign markets while keeping a minority interest in a business. This is especially important if the parent wants to shake off its majority stake in the affiliate.

There is no single bright-line test to determine if one company is affiliated with another. In fact, the criteria for affiliation changes from country to country, state to state, and even between regulatory bodies. For instance, companies considered affiliates by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) may not be considered affiliated by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).

Affiliates Versus Subsidiaries

An affiliate is different from a subsidiary, of which the parent owns more than 50%. In a subsidiary, the parent is a majority shareholder, which gives the parent company’s management and shareholders voting rights. Subsidiary financials may also appear on the parent company’s financial sheets.

But subsidiaries remain separate legal entities from their parents, meaning they are liable for their own taxes, liabilities, and governance. They are also responsible for following the laws and regulations where they are headquartered, especially if they operate in a different jurisdiction from the parent company.

An example of a subsidiary is the relationship between the Walt Disney Corporation and sports network ESPN. Disney owns an 80% interest in ESPN, making it a majority shareholder. ESPN is its subsidiary.

SEC Rules Surrounding Affiliates

Securities markets around the world have rules that concern affiliates of the businesses they regulate. Here again, these are complex rules that need to be analyzed by local experts on a case-by-case basis. Examples of rules enforced by the SEC include:

• Rule 102 of Regulation M prohibits issuers, selling security holders, and their affiliated purchasers from bidding for, purchasing, or attempting to induce any person to bid for or purchase, any security which is the subject of a distribution until after an applicable restricted period has passed.
• Before disclosing nonpublic personal information about a consumer to a nonaffiliated third party, a broker-dealer must first give a consumer an opt-out notice and a reasonable opportunity to opt out of the disclosure.
• Broker-dealers must maintain and preserve certain information regarding those affiliates, subsidiaries, and holding companies whose business activities are reasonably likely to have a material impact on their own finances and operations.

Tax Consequences of Affiliates

In nearly all jurisdictions, there are important tax consequences for affiliated companies. In general, tax credits and deductions are limited to one affiliate in a group, or a ceiling is imposed on the tax benefits that affiliates may reap under certain programs.

Determining whether companies in a group are affiliates, subsidiaries, or associates is done through a case-by-case analysis by local tax experts.