Posts Tagged ‘Examples’

30-Year Treasury: Meaning, History, Examples

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What Is the 30-Year Treasury?

The 30-Year Treasury is a U.S. Treasury debt obligation that has a maturity of 30 years. The 30-year Treasury used to be the bellwether U.S. bond but now most consider the 10-year Treasury to be the benchmark.

Key Takeaways

  • 30-year Treasuries are bonds issued by the U.S. government and have a maturity of 30 years.
  • Other securities issued by the U.S. government include Treasury bills, notes, and Inflation-Protected Securities (TIPS).
  • 30-year Treasuries pay interest semiannually until they mature and at maturity pay the face value of the bond.

Understanding the 30-Year Treasury

The U.S. government borrows money from investors by issuing debt securities through its Treasury department. Debt instruments that can be purchased from the government include Treasury bills (T-bills), notes, and Treasury Inflation-Protected Securities (TIPS). T-bills are marketable securities issued for terms of less than a year, and Treasury notes are issued with maturities from two to 10 years.

TIPS are marketable securities whose principal is adjusted by changes in the Consumer Price Index (CPI). When there is inflation, the principal increases. When deflation sets in, the principal decreases. U.S. Treasury securities with longer-term maturities can be purchased as U.S. Savings bonds or Treasury bonds.

Special Considerations

Treasury bonds are long-term debt securities issued with a maturity of 20 years or 30 years from the issue date. These marketable securities pay interest semi-annually, or every six months until they mature. At maturity, the investor is paid the face value of the bond. The 30-year Treasury will generally pay a higher interest rate than shorter Treasuries to compensate for the additional risks inherent in the longer maturity. However, when compared to other bonds, Treasuries are relatively safe because they are backed by the U.S. government.

The price and interest rate of the 30-year Treasury bond is determined at an auction where it is set at either par, premium, or discount to par. If the yield to maturity (YTM) is greater than the interest rate, the price of the bond will be issued at a discount. If the YTM is equal to the interest rate, the price will be equal to par. Finally, if the YTM is less than the interest rate, the Treasury bond price will be sold at a premium to par. In a single auction, a bidder can buy up to $5 million in bonds by non-competitive bidding or up to 35% of the initial offering amount by competitive bidding. In addition, the bonds are sold in increments of $100 and the minimum purchase is $100.

30-Year Treasury vs. Savings Bonds

U.S. Savings bonds, specifically, Series EE Savings bonds, are non-marketable securities that earn interest for 30 years. Interest isn’t paid out periodically. Instead, interest accumulates, and the investor receives everything when they redeem the savings bond. The bond can be redeemed after one year, but if they are sold before five years from the purchase date, the investor will lose the last three months’ interest. For example, an investor who sells the Savings bond after 24 months will only receive interest for 21 months.

Because the U.S. is seen as a very low-risk borrower, many investors see 30-year Treasury interest rates as indicative of the state of the wider bond market. Normally, the interest rate decreases with greater demand for 30-year Treasury securities and rises with lower demand. The S&P U.S. Treasury Bond Current 30-Year Index is a one-security index comprising the most recently issued 30-year U.S. Treasury bond. It is a market value-weighted index that seeks to measure the performance of the Treasury bond market.

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American Depository Share: Definition, Examples, Vs. ADR

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What Is an American Depositary Share (ADS)?

An American depositary share (ADS) is an equity share of a non-U.S. company that is held by a U.S. depositary bank and is available for purchase by U.S. investors.

The entire issuance of shares by a foreign company is called an American Depositary Receipt (ADR), while the individual shares are referred to as ADSs. But the terms American Depositary Shares and American Depositary Receipts are often used interchangeably.

Key Takeaways

  • American Depositary Shares (ADS) refer to shares in foreign companies that are held by U.S. depositary banks and can be traded in the U.S., including on major exchanges.
  • The terms American Depositary Shares and American Depositary Receipts are often used interchangeably.
  • ADSs allow foreign companies access to a wider investor base and the world’s most sophisticated financial marketplace.
  • The main drawback of ADSs for investors is that there is still some currency risk, even though they are denominated in U.S. dollars.

Understanding American Depositary Shares

An ADR is a negotiable certificate issued by a U.S. bank, under agreement with the foreign company, and is evidence of ownership of ADSs, much the same way a stock certificate denotes ownership of equity shares.

ADSs are meant to facilitate trading of the shares. They can trade over-the-counter (OTC) or on a major exchange such as the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) or the Nasdaq (Nasdaq), depending on how much the foreign company is willing to comply with U.S. regulations. Listing on a major exchange generally requires the same level of reporting as that done by domestic companies, as well as adherence to Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP).

The Benefits of ADSs

Foreign companies that choose to offer shares on U.S. exchanges gain the advantage of a wider investor base, which can also lower costs of future capital. For U.S. investors, ADSs offer the opportunity to invest in foreign companies without dealing with currency conversions and other cross-border administrative hoops.

The Downside of ADSs

There is some currency risk involved in holding ADSs. Fluctuations in the exchange rate between the U.S. dollar and the foreign currency will have some effect on the price of shares as well as on any income payments, which must be converted into U.S. dollars.

Tax treatment of dividends from ADSs is also different. Most countries apply a withholding amount on dividends issued for ADRs. This withholding amount can vary. For example, Chile and Switzerland withhold 35% while France can withhold as much as 75% of the tax on dividends, in the case of non-cooperative countries within the EU. The withholding tax is in addition to the dividend tax already levied by U.S. authorities. The dividend tax can be avoided by ADR investors by filling out Form 1116 for foreign tax credit.

Real World Examples of ADSs

A single ADS often represents more than one share of common stock. Further, ADSs can “gap” up or down outside of U.S. trading hours, when trading is happening in the company’s home country and U.S. markets are closed.

For example, South Korea’s Woori Bank, a subsidiary of Woori Financial Group, has ADSs that are traded in the U.S. The bank’s ADS gapped up by $0.03 on July 20, 2016. A technical analysis of the price action on this ADS shows that for the past decade, its price continued higher two-thirds of the time after a gap up.

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American Option Definition, Pros & Cons, Examples

Written by admin. Posted in A, Financial Terms Dictionary

American Option Definition, Pros & Cons, Examples

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What Is an American Option?

An American option, aka an American-style option, is a version of an options contract that allows holders to exercise the option rights at any time before and including the day of expiration. It contrasts with another type of option, called the European option, that only allows execution on the day of expiration.

An American-style option allows investors to capture profit as soon as the stock price moves favorably, and to take advantage of dividend announcements as well.

Key Takeaways

  • An American option is a style of options contract that allows holders to exercise their rights at any time before and including the expiration date.
  • An American-style option allows investors to capture profit as soon as the stock price moves favorably.
  • American options are often exercised before an ex-dividend date allowing investors to own shares and get the next dividend payment.

How American Options Work

American options outline the timeframe when the option holder can exercise their option contract rights. These rights allow the holder to buy or sell—depending on if the option is a call or put—the underlying asset, at the set strike price on or before the predetermined expiration date. Since investors have the freedom to exercise their options at any point during the life of the contract, American-style options are more valuable than the limited European options. However, the ability to exercise early carries an added premium or cost.

The last day to exercise a weekly American option is normally on the Friday of the week in which the option contract expires. Conversely, the last day to exercise a monthly American option is normally the third Friday of the month.

The majority of exchange-traded options on single stocks are American, while options on indexes tend to be European style.

The names American and European have nothing to do with the geographic location of the option but only apply to the style of rights execution.

American Call and Put Options

A long call option gives the holder the right to demand delivery of the underlying security or stock on any day within the contract period. This feature includes any day leading up to and the day of expiration. As with all options, the buyer does not have an obligation to receive the shares and is not required to exercise their right. The strike price remains the same specified value throughout the contract.

If an investor purchased a call option for a company in March with an expiration date at the end of December of the same year, they would have the right to exercise the call option at any time up until its expiration date.

American put options also allow the execution at any point up to and including the expiration date. This ability gives the buyer the freedom to demand the seller takes delivery of the underlying asset whenever the price falls below the specified strike price.

One reason for the early exercise has to do with the cost of carry or the opportunity cost associated with not investing the gains from the put option. When a put is exercised, investors are paid the strike price immediately. As a result, the proceeds can be invested in another security to earn interest.

However, the drawback to exercising puts is that the investor would miss out on any dividends since exercising would sell the shares. Also, the option itself might continue to increase in value if held to expiry, and exercising early might lead to missing out on any further gains.

When to Exercise Early

In many instances, holders of American-style options do not utilize the early exercise provision, since it’s usually more cost-effective to either hold the contract until expiration or exit the position by selling the option contract outright. In other words, as a stock price rises, the value of a call option increases, as does its premium. Traders can sell an option back to the options market if the current premium is higher than the initial premium paid at the onset. The trader would earn the net difference between the two premiums minus any fees or commissions from the broker.

However, there are times when options are typically exercised early. Deep-in-the-money call options—where the asset’s price is well above the option’s strike price—will usually be exercised early. Puts can also be deep-in-the-money when the price is significantly below the strike price. In most cases, deep prices are those that are more than $10 in-the-money. With lower-priced equities, deep-in-the-money might be characterized as a $5 spread between the strike price and market price.

Early execution can also happen leading up to the date a stock goes ex-dividend—the cutoff date by which shareholders must own the stock to receive the next scheduled dividend payment. Option holders do not receive dividend payments. So, many investors will exercise their options before the ex-dividend date to capture the gains from a profitable position and get paid the dividend.

Advantages and Disadvantages of American Options

American options are helpful since investors don’t have to wait to exercise the option when the asset’s price rises above the strike price. However, American-style options carry a premium—an upfront cost—that investors pay and which must be factored into the overall profitability of the trade.

Pros

  • Allows exercise at any time

  • Allows exercise before an ex-dividend date

  • Allows profits to be put back to work

Examples of an American Option

Say an investor purchased an American-style call option for Apple Inc. (AAPL) in March with an expiration date at the end of December in the same year. The premium is $5 per option contract—one contract is 100 shares ($5 x 100 = $500)—and the strike price on the option is $100. Following the purchase, the stock price rose to $150 per share.

The investor exercises the call option on Apple before expiration buying 100 shares of Apple for $100 per share. In other words, the investor would be long 100 shares of Apple at the $100 strike price. The investor immediately sells the shares for the current market price of $150 and pockets the $50 per share profit. The investor earned $5,000 in total minus the premium of $500 for buying the option and any broker commission.

Let’s say an investor believes shares of Meta Inc. (META), formerly Facebook, will decline in the upcoming months. The investor purchases an American-style July put option in January, which expires in September of the same year. The option premium is $3 per contract (100 x $3 = $300) and the strike price is $150.

Meta’s stock price falls to $90 per share, and the investor exercises the put option and is short 100 shares of Meta at the $150 strike price. The transaction effectively has the investor buying 100 shares of Meta at the current $90 price and immediately selling those shares at the $150 strike price. However, in practice, the net difference is settled, and the investor earns a $60 profit on the option contract, which equates to $6,000 minus the premium of $300 and any broker commissions.

Investopedia does not provide tax, investment, or financial services and advice. The information is presented without consideration of the investment objectives, risk tolerance, or financial circumstances of any specific investor and might not be suitable for all investors. Investing involves risk, including the possible loss of principal.

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What Is an Amortization Schedule? How to Calculate with Formula

Written by admin. Posted in A, Financial Terms Dictionary

What Is an Amortization Schedule? How to Calculate With Formula

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 Period Beginning Loan Balance Payment Interest Principal Ending Loan Balance
Month or period Amount of debt owed at the start of the month of period Amount due each month (often a fixed amount over the term of the loan) Amount of interest included in the payment (loan balance * 1/12 of interest) Amount of principal included in loan payment (Payment – Interest) Amount of debt owed at the end of the month or period (Beginning Loan Balance – Principal)
  • The period is the timing of each loan payment, often represented on a monthly basis. However, each row on an amortization represents a payment so if a loan is due bi-weekly or quarterly, the period will be the same. This column helps a borrower and lender understand which payments will be broken down in what ways. This may either be shown as a payment number (i.e., Payment 1, Payment 2, etc.) or a date (i.e. 1/1/2023, 2/1/2023, etc.).
  • The beginning loan balance is amount of debt owed at the beginning of the period. This amount is either the original amount of the loan or the amount carried over from the prior month (last month’s ending loan balance equals this month’s beginning loan balance).
  • The payment is the monthly obligation calculated above. This will often remain constant over the term of the loan. Though you usually calculate the payment amount before calculating interest and principal, payment is equal to the sum of principal and interest.
  • The interest portion is the amount of the payment that gets applied as interest expense. This is often calculated as the outstanding loan balance multiplied by the interest rate attributable to this period’s portion of the rate. For example, if a payment is owed monthly, this interest rate may be calculated as 1/12 of the interest rate multiplied by the beginning balance. Always be mindful of how a lender calculates, applies, and compounds your annual percentage rate as this impacts your schedule. As the outstanding loan balance decreases over time, less interest should be charged each period.
  • The principal portion is simply the left over amount of the payment. This is the total payment amount less the amount of interest expense for this period. As the outstanding loan balance decreases over time, less interest will be charged, so the value of this column should increase over time.
  • The ending loan balance is the difference between the beginning loan balance and the principal portion. This represents the new debt balance owed based on the payment made for the new period.

Amortization of Intangible Assets

Amortization can also refer to the amortization of intangibles. In this case, amortization is the process of expensing the cost of an intangible asset over the projected life of the asset. It measures the consumption of the value of an intangible asset, such as goodwill, a patent, a trademark, or copyright.

Amortization is calculated in a similar manner to depreciation—which is used for tangible assets, such as equipment, buildings, vehicles, and other assets subject to physical wear and tear—and depletion, which is used for natural resources.

When businesses amortize expenses over time, they help tie the cost of using an asset to the revenues that it generates in the same accounting period, in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). For example, a company benefits from the use of a long-term asset over a number of years. Thus, it writes off the expense incrementally over the useful life of that asset.

The amortization of intangibles is also useful in tax planning. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) allows taxpayers to take a deduction for certain expenses: geological and geophysical expenses incurred in oil and natural gas exploration, atmospheric pollution control facilities, bond premiums, research and development (R&D), lease acquisition, forestation and reforestation, and intangibles, such as goodwill, patents, copyrights, and trademarks.

The IRS has schedules that dictate the total number of years in which to expense tangible and intangible assets for tax purposes.

Why Is Amortization Important?

Amortization is important because it helps businesses and investors understand and forecast their costs over time. In the context of loan repayment, amortization schedules provide clarity into what portion of a loan payment consists of interest versus principal. This can be useful for purposes such as deducting interest payments for tax purposes. It is also useful for future planning to understand what a company’s future debt balance will be in the future after a series of payments have already been made.

Amortizing intangible assets is important because it can reduce a business’s taxable income, and therefore its tax liability, while giving investors a better understanding of the company’s true earnings. Intangible assets also have a finite useful life; over time, trademarks or patents may lose their value due to obsolescence. Amortizing intangible assets is also a reflection of how a company has “used up” the benefit of these assets.

Amortization vs. Depreciation

Amortization and depreciation are similar concepts, in that both attempt to capture the cost of holding an asset over time. The main difference between them, however, is that amortization refers to intangible assets, whereas depreciation refers to tangible assets. Examples of intangible assets include trademarks and patents; tangible assets include equipment, buildings, vehicles, and other assets subject to physical wear and tear.

Another difference is the accounting treatment in which different assets are reduced on the balance sheet. Amortizing an intangible asset is performed by directly crediting (reducing) that specific asset account. Alternatively, depreciation is recorded by crediting an account called accumulated depreciation, a contra asset account. The historical cost fixed assets remains on a company’s books; however, the company also reports this contra asset amount to report a net reduced book value amount.

Last, the calculation of each can be different. This is especially true when comparing depreciation to the amortization of a loan. Intangible assets are often amortized over their useful life using the straight-line method, while fixed assets often use a much more broad set of calculation methods (i.e., declining balance method, double-declining balance method, sum-of-the-years’ digits method, or the units of production method).

Example of Amortization

Let’s look at a four-year, $30,000 auto loan at 3% interest. The monthly payment is going to be $664.03. That is arrived at as follows:


$ 30 , 000 × ( 0.0025 × ( 1.0025 ÷ 48 ) 1.0025 ÷ 48 1 ) \begin{aligned}&\$30,000 \times \Bigg ( \frac { 0.0025 \times (1.0025 \div 48) }{ 1.0025 \div 48 } – 1 \Bigg ) \\\end{aligned}
$30,000×(1.0025÷480.0025×(1.0025÷48)1)

In the first month, $75 of the $664.03 monthly payment goes to interest.


$ 30 , 000  loan balance × 3 %  interest rate ÷ 12  months \begin{aligned}&\$30,000 \ \text{loan balance} \times 3\% \ \text{interest rate} \div 12 \ \text{months} \\\end{aligned}
$30,000 loan balance×3% interest rate÷12 months

The remaining $589.03 goes toward principal.


$ 664.03  total monthly payment $ 75  interest payment \begin{aligned}&\$664.03 \ \text{total monthly payment} – \$75 \ \text{interest payment} \\ \end{aligned}
$664.03 total monthly payment$75 interest payment

The total payment stays the same each month, while the portion going to principal increases and the portion going to interest decreases. In the final month, only $1.66 is paid in interest, because the outstanding loan balance at that point is very minimal compared with the starting loan balance.

Loan Amortization Schedule
Period Total Payment Due Computed Interest Due Principal Due Principal Balance
        $30,000
1 $664.03 $75 $589.03 $29,410.97
2 $664.03 $73.53 $590.50 $28,820.47
3 $664.03 $72.05 $591.98 $28,228.49
4 $664.03 $70.57 $593.46 $27,635.03
5 $664.03 $69.09 $594.94 $27,040.09
6 $664.03 $67.60 $596.43 $26,443.66
7 $664.03 $66.11 $597.92 $25,845.74
8 $664.03 $64.61 $599.42 $25,246.32
9 $664.03 $63.12 $600.91 $24,645.41
10 $664.03 $61.61 $602.42 $24,042.99
11 $664.03 $60.11 $603.92 $23,439.07
12 $664.03 $58.60 $605.43 $22,833.64
13 $664.03 $57.08 $606.95 $22,226.69
14 $664.03 $55.57 $608.46 $21,618.23
15 $664.03 $54.05 $609.98 $21,008.24
16 $664.03 $52.52 $611.51 $20,396.73
17 $664.03 $50.99 $613.04 $19,783.69
18 $664.03 $49.46 $614.57 $19,169.12
19 $664.03 $47.92 $616.11 $18,553.02
20 $664.03 $46.38 $617.65 $17,935.37
21 $664.03 $44.84 $619.19 $17,316.18
22 $664.03 $43.29 $620.74 $16,695.44
23 $664.03 $41.74 $622.29 $16,073.15
24 $664.03 $40.18 $623.85 $15,449.30
25 $664.03 $38.62 $625.41 $14,823.89
26 $664.03 $37.06 $626.97 $14,196.92
27 $664.03 $35.49 $628.54 $13,568.38
28 $664.03 $33.92 $630.11 $12,938.28
29 $664.03 $32.35 $631.68 $12,306.59
30 $664.03 $30.77 $633.26 $11,673.33
31 $664.03 $29.18 $634.85 $11,038.48
32 $664.03 $27.60 $636.43 $10,402.05
33 $664.03 $26.01 $638.02 $9,764.02
34 $664.03 $24.41 $639.62 $9,124.40
35 $664.03 $22.81 $641.22 $8,483.18
36 $664.03 $21.21 $642.82 $7,840.36
37 $664.03 $19.60 $644.43 $7,195.93
38 $664.03 $17.99 $646.04 $6,549.89
39 $664.03 $16.37 $647.66 $5,902.24
40 $664.03 $14.76 $649.27 $5,252.96
41 $664.03 $13.13 $650.90 $4,602.06
42 $664.03 $11.51 $652.52 $3,949.54
43 $664.03 $9.87 $654.16 $3,295.38
44 $664.03 $8.24 $655.79 $2,639.59
45 $664.03 $6.60 $657.43 $1,982.16
46 $664.03 $4.96 $659.07 $1,323.09
47 $664.03 $3.31 $660.72 $662.36
48 $664.03 $1.66 $662.36 $0.00

Frequently Asked Questions

What Is Negative Amortization?

Negative amortization is when the size of a debt increases with each payment, even if you pay on time. This happens because the interest on the loan is greater than the amount of each payment. Negative amortization is particularly dangerous with credit cards, whose interest rates can be as high as 20% or even 30%. In order to avoid owing more money later, it is important to avoid over-borrowing and to pay your debts as quickly as possible.

What Does Amortization Mean for Intangible Assets?

Amortization measures the declining value of intangible assets, such as goodwill, trademarks, patents, and copyrights. This is calculated in a similar manner to the depreciation of tangible assets, like factories and equipment. When businesses amortize intangible assets over time, they are able to tie the cost of those assets with the revenue generated over each accounting period and deduct the costs over the lifetime of the asset.

Why Is Amortization Important in Accounting?

Amortization helps businesses and investors understand and forecast their costs over time. In the context of loan repayment, amortization schedules provide clarity into what portion of a loan payment consists of interest versus principal. This can be useful for purposes such as deducting interest payments for tax purposes. Amortizing intangible assets is also important because it can reduce a company’s taxable income and therefore its tax liability, while giving investors a better understanding of the company’s true earnings.

How Do You Amortize a Loan?

A loan is amortized by determining the monthly payment due over the term of the loan. Then, prepare an amortization schedule that clearly identifies what portion of each month’s payment is attributable towards interest and what portion of each month’s payment is attributable towards principal.

Since part of the payment will theoretically be applied to the outstanding principal balance, the amount of interest paid each month will decrease. Since your payment should theoretically remain the same each month, more of your payment each month will apply to principal, thereby paying down the amount you borrowed over time.

The Bottom Line

Amortization is a technique of gradually reducing an account balance over time. When amortizing loans, a gradually escalating portion of the monthly debt payment is applied to the principal. When amortizing intangible assets, amortization is similar to depreciation where a fixed percentage of an asset’s book value is reduced each month. This technique is used to reflect how the benefit of an asset is received by a company over time.

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