What Is an Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) Miner?

An application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) is an integrated circuit chip designed for a specific purpose. An ASIC miner is a computerized device that uses ASICs for the sole purpose of “mining” digital currency. Generally, each ASIC miner is constructed to mine a specific digital currency. So, a Bitcoin ASIC miner can mine only bitcoin. One way to think about bitcoin ASICs is as specialized bitcoin mining computers optimized to solve the mining algorithm.

Developing and manufacturing ASICs as mining devices is costly and complex. However, because ASICs are built especially for mining cryptocurrency, they do the job faster than less powerful computers. As a result, ASIC chips for cryptocurrency mining have become increasingly efficient, with the latest generation hashing at 158 terahashes per second but only using 34.5 joules per terahash.

Understanding Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) Miners

Instead of being general-purpose integrated circuits—like RAM chips or PC or mobile device microprocessors—ASICs employed in cryptocurrency mining are specific integrated circuits designed solely to mine cryptocurrencies.

Initially, Bitcoin’s creator(s) intended for bitcoin to be mined on central processing units (CPUs) of commonly used laptops or desktop computers. However, Bitcoin ASICs surpassed both CPUs and graphics processing units (GPUs) because of their reduced electricity consumption and greater computing capacity. After gaining traction in mid-2013, when other hardware mining devices started hitting bottlenecks in their mining, Bitcoin ASIC miners increased and retained their lead.

A hash is a long hexadecimal number used to identify blocks in a blockchain, called the block header hash or block hash. To mine a block, miners begin adding values to a hash to generate new ones until a number less than the target difficulty (original hash) is reached. This is called hashing. The more hashes that can be performed in a set period, the more likely a miner is to earn bitcoin. ASIC miners are optimized to compute hash functions efficiently and quickly.

Although mining cryptocurrencies can be an expensive proposition of declining profitability, many people are drawn to it. Despite the uncertain return on investment, would-be cryptocurrency miners are willing to incur high upfront expenses for pricey ASICs and pay significant ongoing costs for electricity in return for the prospect of earning cryptocurrency.

Development of the ASIC Miner

Cryptocurrency mining is required by a proof of work (PoW) blockchain like Bitcoin to carry out its operations. The mining process involves solving a block’s hash by randomly generating numbers until reaching a number below the target difficulty number. The first miner to find the solution to the puzzle closes the block. Each winner in the bitcoin mining competition receives a reward (a specific amount of bitcoin) along with the transaction fees for the transactions in that block.

In Bitcoin’s early days, any computer with adequate processing power could mine bitcoin. However, those days are long gone; bitcoin’s soaring popularity and growing acceptance have attracted hordes of crypto miners.

At the same time, cryptocurrency mining has become exponentially more difficult because the mining difficulty changes as miners enter and exit the network. Over time, the number of miners has constantly grown, which increased the difficulty. These developments have resulted in a race to harness the most “hashing power,” the term used to describe how many hashes per second a miner can generate (or the combined hashes per second of a networked mining rig or pool). ASIC miners came about as a result of this quest for more hashing power; modern Bitcoin ASICs can hash at more than 150 terahashes per second (nine zeros, or 150 x 10¹² hashes per second).

ASIC devices were popularized by Bitmain (headquartered in China), which dominates ASIC Bitcoin mining activities through its Antminer ASIC product range.

ASIC Miner Advantages

Though GPU and CPU mining rigs rely on components that have more than one function, ASIC miners are designed for the sole purpose of mining cryptocurrency. This singular focus makes an ASIC miner much more powerful and energy-efficient than a comparable GPU miner.

Because each cryptocurrency has its own cryptographic hash algorithm, an ASIC miner is designed to mine using that specific algorithm. For example, Bitcoin ASIC miners are designed to hash the SHA-256 algorithm, while Litecoin (LTC) uses scrypt (pronounced es-crypt). Though this means that an ASIC miner could technically mine any other cryptocurrency based on the same algorithm, most miners who invest in ASIC hardware designed to mine bitcoin or Litecoin stick to mining that specific cryptocurrency.

ASIC Miner Considerations

Before investing thousands of dollars in an ASIC mining rig, here are some factors to be considered:

• What coins can be mined? The list of cryptocurrencies that can be mined with ASICs is far smaller than those that can be mined with a GPU rig. Cryptocurrencies that can be mined with ASICs include Bitcoin, Litecoin, and several others.
• Rig location: Though GPU mining rigs can be located in one’s home, ASIC miners are louder and generate much more heat. This means that one’s home is not ideal for an ASIC miner, and alternate locations like a basement or garage with cooling need to be considered.
• Power consumption: The latest generation of ASIC machines are more energy-efficient than GPU rigs but consume tremendous power nevertheless. An ASIC miner based in one’s home may necessitate upgrading the electrical wiring system to handle the increased power load.
• Choosing a Bitcoin mining pool: Mining pools enable miners to combine the power of their ASIC miner rigs to mine bitcoin and share the rewards for successfully minted blocks. Factors to be considered when choosing a pool include its reputation, size, and payment rules.
• Return on Investment: Is the return on investment sufficiently high enough to justify the upfront cost of an ASIC miner and ongoing operating expenses?

What Is a 501(c)(3) Organization?

Section 501(c)(3) is a portion of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code (IRC) and a specific tax category for nonprofit organizations. Organizations that meet Section 501(c)(3) requirements are exempt from federal income tax. While the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) recognizes more than 30 types of nonprofit organizations, only those that qualify for 501(c)(3) status can say that donations to them are tax deductible.

Most of the organizations that may be eligible for 501(c)(3) designation fall into one of three categories: charitable organizations, churches and religious organizations, and private foundations. The rules outlined in Section 501(c)(3) are regulated by the U.S. Treasury through the IRS.

How a 501(c)(3) Organization Works

To be considered a charitable organization by the IRS, a group must operate exclusively for one of these purposes: charitable, religious, educational, scientific, literary, testing for public safety, fostering national or international amateur sports competition, or preventing cruelty to children or animals.

Furthermore, the IRS defines “charitable” activities as “relief of the poor, the distressed, or the underprivileged; advancement of religion; advancement of education or science; erecting or maintaining public buildings, monuments, or works; lessening the burdens of government; lessening neighborhood tensions; eliminating prejudice and discrimination; defending human and civil rights secured by law; and combating community deterioration and juvenile delinquency.”

Requirements of a 501(c)(3) Organization

To be tax exempt under Section 501(c)(3), an organization must not be serving any private interests, including the interests of the creator, the creator’s family, shareholders of the organization, other designated individuals, or other persons controlled by private interests. None of the net earnings of the organization can be used to benefit any private shareholder or individual; all earnings must be used solely for the advancement of its charitable cause.

A 501(c)(3) organization is also forbidden from using its activities to influence legislation in a substantial way, including participating in any campaign activities to support or deny any particular political candidate. It is typically not permitted to engage in lobbying (except in instances when its expenditures are below a certain amount).

People employed by the organization must be paid “reasonable compensation,” which is based on the fair market value that the job function requires.

To remain tax exempt under Section 501(c)(3), an organization is also required to remain true to its founding purpose. If an organization has previously reported to the IRS that its mission is to help less privileged individuals gain access to a college education, it must maintain this purpose. If it decides to engage in another calling—for example, sending relief to displaced families in poverty-stricken countries—the 501(c)(3) organization has to first notify the IRS of its change of operations to prevent the loss of its tax-exempt status.

While some unrelated business income is allowed for a 501(c)(3) organization, the tax-exempt charity may not receive substantial income from unrelated business operations. This means that the majority of the firm’s efforts must go toward its exempt purpose as a nonprofit organization. Any unrelated business from sales of merchandise or rental properties must be limited or the organization could lose its 501(c)(3) status. While the IRS doesn’t specify exactly how much is too much unrelated business income, the law firm of Hurwit & Associates, which specializes in representing nonprofits, estimates the amount at somewhere between 15% and 30%.

While organizations that meet the requirements of Section 501(c)(3) are exempt from federal income tax, they are required to withhold federal income tax from their employees’ paychecks and pay Social Security and Medicare taxes. They do not, however, have to pay federal unemployment taxes.

Special Considerations

Organizations that meet the 501(c)(3) tax category requirements can be classified into two categories: public charities and private foundations. The main distinction between these two categories is how they get their financial support. 

Public Charity

A public charity is a nonprofit organization that receives a substantial portion of its income or revenue from the general public or the government. At least one-third of its income must be received from the donations of the general public (including individuals, corporations, and other nonprofit organizations).

If an individual donates to an organization that the IRS considers to be a public charity, they may qualify for certain tax deductions that can help them lower their taxable income. Generally, the total amount of donations to a tax-exempt public charity that an individual can claim is limited to 50% of their adjusted gross income (AGI). However, there is no limitation on donations to qualified charitable organizations, such as a 501(c)(3).

Private Foundation

A private foundation is typically held by an individual, a family, or a corporation and obtains most of its income from a small group of donors. Private foundations are subject to stricter rules and regulations than public charities. All 501(c)(3) organizations are automatically classified as private foundations unless they can prove they meet the IRS standards to be considered a public charity. The deductibility of contributions to a private foundation is more limited than donations for a public charity.

To apply for tax-exempt status under Section 501(c)(3), most nonprofit organizations are required to file Form 1023 or Form 1023-EZ within 27 months from their date of incorporation. The charitable organization must include its articles of incorporation and provide documents that prove that the organization is only operating for exempt purposes.

However, not all organizations that qualify for the tax category need to submit Form 1023. For example, public charities that earn less than $5,000 in revenue per year are exempt from filing this form. Even though it is not required, they may still choose to file the form to ensure that donations made to their organization will be tax deductible for donors.

Advantages and Disadvantages of a 501(c)(3) Organization

The 501(c)(3) status offers a myriad of benefits to the designated organizations and the people they serve. For starters, 501(c)(3) organizations are exempt from paying federal income and unemployment taxes, and patrons who donate to them are allowed to claim a tax deduction for their contributions.

To help with funding and further their mission, these organizations are eligible to receive government and private grants. To qualify, the organization must have a mission aligned with the purpose of the grant and a need for it. In addition, 501(c)(3) organizations often receive discounts from retailers, free advertising by way of public service announcements, and food and supplies from other nonprofit organizations designed to help in times of need.

A 501(c)(3) could be the lifelong dream of its founder; however, once established as a 501(c)(3), it no longer belongs to its founder. Rather, it is a mission-oriented organization belonging to the public. To maintain its favorable tax treatment, it must operate within the confines of the law pertaining to 501(c)(3) organizations.

Because the organization serves the public, it must operate with full transparency. Therefore, its finances, including salaries, are available to members of the public and subject to their review.

Example of a 501(c)(3) Organization

The American Red Cross, established in 1881 and congressionally chartered in 1900, is one of the United States’ oldest nonprofit organizations. Its mission statement says that the Red Cross “prevents and alleviates human suffering in the face of emergencies by mobilizing the power of volunteers and the generosity of donors.” Since its inception, its goal has been to serve members of the armed forces and provide aid during disasters.

Located in 191 countries, the Red Cross operates the largest network of volunteers in the world. This 501(c)(3) organization is segmented into three divisions: the National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, and the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, which include the American Red Cross, aim to relieve human suffering globally by empowering subordinate organizations to operate within their nation’s borders to provide disaster relief, education, and other related services. The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies provides global humanitarian aid during peacetime, such as assisting refugees. The International Committee of the Red Cross provides humanitarian relief for people affected by war or other armed conflicts.

People who itemize their tax deductions can contribute to the Red Cross and claim the amount donated as a deduction. Taxpayers who use the standard deduction may still claim up to $600 of their 501(c)(3) contributions as a tax deduction in 2021.

The Bottom Line

501(c)(3) organizations are nonprofit groups with a dedicated mission. Most people are familiar with them as churches and charities, but they also include private foundations. As long as they operate to support their mission, they receive favorable tax treatment, such as avoiding federal income and unemployment taxes.

What Is the After-Tax Real Rate of Return?

The after-tax real rate of return is the actual financial benefit of an investment after accounting for the effects of inflation and taxes. It is a more accurate measure of an investor’s net earnings after income taxes have been paid and the rate of inflation has been adjusted for. Both of these factors must be accounted for because they impact the gains an investor receives. This can be contrasted with the gross rate of return and the nominal rate of return of an investment.

Understanding the After-Tax Real Rate of Return

Over the course of a year, an investor might earn a nominal rate of return of 12% on his stock investment, but the real rate of return, the money he gets to put in his pocket at the end of the day, will be less than 12%. Inflation might have been 3% for the year, knocking his real rate of return down to 9%. And since he sold his stock at a profit, he will have to pay taxes on those profits, taking another, say 2%, off his return, for an after-tax real rate of return of 7%.

The commission he paid to buy and sell the stock also diminishes his return. Thus, in order to truly grow their nest eggs over time, investors must focus on the after-tax real rate of return, not the nominal return.

The after-tax real rate of return is a more accurate measure of investment earnings and usually differs significantly from an investment’s nominal (gross) rate of return, or its return before fees, inflation, and taxes. However, investments in tax-advantaged securities, such as municipal bonds and inflation-protected securities, such as Treasury inflation protected securities (TIPS), as well as investments held in tax-advantaged accounts, such as Roth IRAs, will show less discrepancy between nominal returns and after-tax real rates of return.

Example of the After-Tax Real Rate of Return

Let’s be more specific about how the after-tax real rate of return is determined. The return is calculated first of all by determining the after-tax return before inflation, which is calculated as Nominal Return x (1 – tax rate). For example, consider an investor whose nominal return on his equity investment is 17% and his applicable tax rate is 15%. His after-tax return is, therefore:
$0.17 \times (1 – 0.15) = 0.1445 = 14.45\%$0.17×(1−0.15)=0.1445=14.45%

Let’s assume that the inflation rate during this period is 2.5%. To calculate the real rate of return after tax, divide 1 plus the after-tax return by 1 plus the inflation rate, then subtract 1. Dividing by inflation reflects the fact that a dollar in hand today is worth more than a dollar in hand tomorrow. In other words, future dollars have less purchasing power than today’s dollars.

Following our example, the after-tax real rate of return is:

$\frac{(1 + 0.1445)}{(1 + 0.025)} – 1 = 1.1166 – 1 = 0.1166 = 11.66\%$(1+0.025)(1+0.1445)​−1=1.1166−1=0.1166=11.66%

That figure is quite a bit lower than the 17% gross return received on the investment. As long as the real rate of return after taxes is positive, however, an investor will be ahead of inflation. If it’s negative, the return will not be sufficient to sustain an investor’s standard of living in the future.

The Bottom Line

When you are assessing the value of your investments, it’s important to look at not just your nominal rate of return but also the after-tax real rate of return, which takes into account the taxes you’ll owe and inflation’s effect. The after-tax real rate of return can tell you if your nest egg investments will allow you to maintain your standard of living in the future.

What Is the Average Daily Rate (ADR)?

The average daily rate (ADR) is a metric widely used in the hospitality industry to indicate the average revenue earned for an occupied room on a given day. The average daily rate is one of the key performance indicators (KPI) of the industry.

Another KPI metric is the occupancy rate, which when combined with the ADR, comprises revenue per available room (RevPAR), all of which are used to measure the operating performance of a lodging unit such as a hotel or motel.

Understanding the Average Daily Rate (ADR)

The average daily rate (ADR) shows how much revenue is made per room on average. The higher the ADR, the better. A rising ADR suggests that a hotel is increasing the money it’s making from renting out rooms. To increase the ADR, hotels should look into ways to boost price per room.

Hotel operators seek to increase ADR by focusing on pricing strategies. This includes upselling, cross-sale promotions, and complimentary offers such as free shuttle service to the local airport. The overall economy is a big factor in setting prices, with hotels and motels seeking to adjust room rates to match current demand.

To determine the operating performance of a lodging, the ADR can be measured against a hotel’s historical ADR to look for trends, such as seasonal impact or how certain promotions performed. It can also be used as a measure of relative performance since the metric can be compared to other hotels that have similar characteristics, such as size, clientele, and location. This helps to accurately price room rentals.

Calculating the Average Daily Rate (ADR)

The average daily rate is calculated by taking the average revenue earned from rooms and dividing it by the number of rooms sold. It excludes complimentary rooms and rooms occupied by staff.


$\text{Average Daily Rate} = \frac{\text{Rooms Revenue Earned}}{\text{Number of Rooms Sold}}$Average Daily Rate=Number of Rooms SoldRooms Revenue Earned​

Example of the Average Daily Rate (ADR)

If a hotel has $50,000 in room revenue and 500 rooms sold, the ADR would be $100 ($50,000/500). Rooms used for in-house use, such as those set aside for hotel employees and complimentary ones, are excluded from the calculation.

Real World Example

Consider Marriott International (MAR), a major publicly traded hotelier that reports ADR along with occupancy rate and RevPAR. For 2019, Marriott’s ADR increased by 2.1% from 2018 to $202.75 in North America. The occupancy rate was fairly static at 75.8%. Taking the ADR and multiplying it by the occupancy rate yields the RevPAR. In Marriott’s case, $202.75 times 75.8% equates to a RevPAR of $153.68, which was up 2.19% from 2018.

The Difference Between the Average Daily Rate (ADR) and Revenue Per Available Room (RevPAR)

The average daily rate (ADR) is needed to calculate the revenue per available room (RevPAR). The average daily rate tells a lodging company how much they make per room on average in a given day. Meanwhile, RevPAR measures a lodging’s ability to fill its available rooms at the average rate. If the occupancy rate is not at 100% and the RevPAR is below the ADR, a hotel operator knows that it can probably reduce the average price per room to help increase occupancy.

Limitations of Using the Average Daily Rate (ADR)

The ADR does not tell the complete story about a hotel’s revenue. For instance, it does not include the charges a lodging company may charge if a guest does not show up. The figure also does not subtract items such as commissions and rebates offered to customers if there is a problem. A property’s ADR may increase as a result of price increases, however, this provides limited information in isolation. Occupancy could have fallen, leaving overall revenue lower.