An actuarial life table is a table or spreadsheet that shows the probability of a person at a certain age dying before their next birthday. It’s often used by life insurance companies to calculate the remaining life expectancy for people at different ages and stages, and the probability of surviving a particular year of age.
Because men and women have different mortality rates, an actuarial life table is computed separately for men and women. An actuarial life table is also called a mortality table, life table, or actuarial table.
Key Takeaways
The statistics in an actuarial life table calculate the probability of surviving a particular year of age, among other things.
Insurance companies use actuarial life tables in their work.
These tables may be called different names like a mortality table, actuarial or life table.
Actuarial science uses primarily two types of life tables.
How an Actuarial Life Table Works
Insurance companies utilize actuarial life tables to help price products and project future insured events. Mathematically and statistically based actuarial life tables assist life insurance companies by showing event probabilities, such as death, sickness, and disability.
An actuarial life table can also include factors to differentiate variable risks such as smoking, occupation, socio-economic status, and even gambling, and debt load. Computerized predictive modeling allows actuaries the ability to calculate for a wide variety of circumstances and probable outcomes.
Actuarial Science
Actuarial science uses primarily two types of life tables. First, the period life table is used to determine mortality rates for a specific time period of a certain population. The other type of actuarial life table is called the cohort life table, also referred to as a generation life table. It is used to represent the overall mortality rates of a certain population’s entire lifetime.
Actuarial life tables for men and women are computed differently due to the discrepancy of life expectancies for each gender.
The population selection must be born during the same specific time interval. A cohort life table is more commonly used because it attempts to predict any expected change in mortality rates of a population in the future.
A cohort table also analyzes observable mortality patterns over time. Both types of actuarial life tables are based on actual populations of the present and educated predictions of a population’s near future. Other types of life tables may be based on historical records. These types of life tables often undercount infants and understate infant mortality.
Insurance companies use actuarial life tables to primarily make two types of predictions: the probability of surviving any particular year of age and the remaining life expectancy for people of different ages.
Other Uses of Actuarial Life Tables
Actuarial life tables also play an important role in the sciences of biology and epidemiology. In addition, the Social Security Administration in the United States uses actuarial life tables to examine the mortality rates of people who have Social Security in order to inform certain policy decisions or actions.
Actuarial life tables are also important in product life cycle management and for pension calculations.
How are actuarial tables used?
Typically they’re used by life insurance companies to calculate the remaining life expectancy for people at different ages and stages, and the probability of surviving a particular year of age.
What’s an actuary do?
Actuaries say they are risk managers, and “experts in evaluating the likelihood of future events.”
What are the two kinds of actuarial tables?
The two tables are the period life table (to determine mortality rates for a specific time period of a defined population) and the cohort life table (used to represent the overall mortality rates of a certain population’s entire lifetime).
Actuarial science is a discipline that assesses financial risks in the insurance and finance fields, using mathematical and statistical methods. Actuarial science applies the mathematics of probability and statistics to define, analyze, and solve the financial implications of uncertain future events. Traditional actuarial science largely revolves around the analysis of mortality and the production of life tables, and the application of compound interest.
Key Takeaways
Actuarial science assesses financial risks in the insurance and finance fields, using mathematical and statistical methods.
Actuarial science applies probability analysis and statistics to define, analyze, and solve the financial impact of uncertain future events.
Actuarial science helps insurance companies forecast the probability of an event occurring to determine the funds needed to pay claims.
The Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS) and Society of Actuaries (SOA) promote several professional certifications for actuaries to pursue beyond a bachelor’s degree in actuarial science.
The most recent salary information from the Bureau of Labor Statistics shows actuaries earned an average salary of nearly $106,000 as of May 2021.
Understanding Actuarial Science
Actuarial science attempts to quantify the risk of an event occurring using probability analysis so that its financial impact can be determined. Actuarial science is typically used in the insurance industry by actuaries. Actuaries analyze mathematical models to predict or forecast the reasonableness of an event occurring so that an insurance company can allocate funds to pay out any claims that might result from the event. For example, studying mortality rates of individuals of a certain age would help insurance companies understand the likelihood or timeframe of paying out a life insurance policy.
Actuarial science became a formal mathematical discipline in the late 17th century with the increased demand for long-term insurance coverage. Actuarial science spans several interrelated subjects, including mathematics, probability theory, statistics, finance, economics, and computer science. Historically, actuarial science used deterministic models in the construction of tables and premiums. In the last 30 years, science has undergone revolutionary changes due to the proliferation of high-speed computers and the union of stochastic actuarial models with modern financial theory.
Applications of Actuarial Science
Life insurance and pension plans are the two main applications of actuarial science. However, actuarial science is also applied in the study of financial organizations to analyze their liabilities and improve financial decision-making. Actuaries employ this specialty science to evaluate the financial, economic, and other business applications of future events.
Insurance
In traditional life insurance, actuarial science focuses on the analysis of mortality, the production of life tables, and the application of compound interest, which is the accumulated interest from previous periods plus the interest on the principal investment. As a result, actuarial science can help develop policies for financial products such as annuities, which are investments that pay a fixed income stream. Actuarial science is also used to determine the various financial outcomes for investable assets held by non-profit corporations as a result of endowments.
In health insurance, including employer-provided plans and social insurance, actuarial science includes analyzing rates of
Disability in the population or the risk of a certain group of people becoming disabled
Morbidity or the frequency and the extent to which a disease occurs in a population
Mortality or mortality rate, which measures the number of deaths in a population that result from a specific disease or event
Fertility or fertility rate, which measures the number of children born
For example, disability rates are determined for veterans that may have been wounded in the line of duty. Certain percentages are assigned to the extent of the disability to determine the payout from disability insurance.
Actuarial science is also applied to property, casualty, liability, and general insurance–instances in which coverage is generally provided on a renewable period, (such as yearly). Coverage can be canceled at the end of the period by either party.
Pensions
In the pension industry, actuarial science compares the costs of alternative strategies with regard to the design, funding, accounting, administration, and maintenance or redesign of pension plans. A pension plan is a defined-benefit plan, which is a type of retirement plan involving contributions from the employer to be set aside and paid out to the employees upon retirement.
Short-term and long-term bond rates greatly influence pension plans and their investment strategies. Bonds are debt instruments issued by governments and corporations that typically pay a periodic interest rate. For example, in a low-interest-rate environment, a pension plan might have difficulty earning income from the bonds that it has invested in, which increases the probability that the pension plan could run out of money.
Other factors impacting a pension plan’s viability include benefit arrangements, collective bargaining, the employer’s competitors, and changing demographics of the workforce. Tax laws and the policies of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) regarding the calculation of pension surpluses also impact the finances of a pension plan. Additionally, economic conditions and trends in the financial markets can impact the probability of a pension plan remaining funded.
Actuaries may also work in the public sector to assist with proposed changes to Social Security, Medicare, or other programs.
Universities and Professional Certifications
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the number of actuaries employed is expected to grow 21% from 2021 to 2031. For this reason, many universities offer educational degrees and courses on actuarial science. In addition, there are professional designations for those interested in pursuing the field.
Universities
The Society of Actuaries identifies and reports colleges that meet one of three levels of recognition:
UCAP-Introduction Curriculum: Universities that maintain course requirements for two professional actuarial exams in addition to having met other approved course requirements.
UCAP-Advanced Curriculum: Universities that maintain course requirements for four professional exams in addition to having met other approved course requirements.
Center of Actuarial Excellence: Universities that maintain eight specific requirements in connection with a variety of matters. This is the highest tier of competency identified by the SOA for a university.
As of December 2022, there are roughly 25 Center of Actuarial Excellence schools across the United States, Canda, Australia, Singapore, the United Kingdom, and China. Within the U.S., these schools include but are not limited to Brigham Young, Georgia State, Purdue, Connecticut, and Michigan.
Compensation
According to the latest BLS wage data, the median annual wage for actuaries in 2021 was $105,900.
Professional Designations and Credentials
There are a number of different professional designations an actuary can pursue to further gain credibility and proficiency in their field. The Casualty Actuarial Society offers the Associate (ACAS) and Fellow (FCAS) membership levels, each of the two with escalating requirements. For example, the ACAS credential can be achieved after passing six exams, while the FCAS is earned after nine exams. Areas of focus for the FCAS exam include:
Probability
Financial Mathematics
Financial Economics
Modern Actuarial Statistics
Basic Techniques for Ratemaking and Estimating Claim Liabilities
Regulation & Financial Reporting
Policy Liabilities, Insurance Company Valuation, and Enterprise Risk Management
Advanced Ratemaking
The Society of Actuaries promotes several different actuarial exams to demonstrate competency in the field.
An Associate of the Society of Actuaries (ASA) demonstrates knowledge of fundamental concepts of modeling and managing risk. The examination requirements are changing as of Spring 2023, and the list of required examinations includes topics on predictive analysis, economics, probabilities, and financial markets.
A Chartered Enterprise Risk Analyst (CERA) specializes in having knowledge in identifying, measuring, and managing risk in risk-bearing enterprises. Similar to the ASA requirements, the CERA requirements include a professional course covering code of conduct.
A Fellow of the Society of Actuaries (FSA) demonstrates knowledge of financial decisions involving pensions, life insurance, health insurance, and investments. FSAs also must demonstrate in-depth knowledge and the application of appropriate techniques to these various areas.
Is Actuarial Science Difficult?
Actuarial science is a difficult profession. Actuarial exams usually last between 3 and 5 hours, and each requires rigorous preparation. Candidates must often have a bachelor’s degree, and it make take up to a decade for a candidate to complete all training and exams.
What Type of Math Do Actuaries Use?
Actuaries often have a background in probability, statistics, and financial mathematics. Most often, an actuary will assess the probability of an event happen, then apply statistical methods to determine what the financial impact of that outcome will be. Actuaries usually do not use calculus at work, though calculus may be a prerequisite to meeting other course requirements.
How Long Does It Take To Become an Actuary?
For most, it may take up to a decade or longer to become an actuary. A bachelor’s degree in actuarial science may take between 3 to 5 years, and it may take at least another several years to pass rigorous professional actuarial exams.
The Bottom Line
Actuarial science is the study of mathematically predicting the probability of something happening in the future and assigning that outcome a financial value. Companies, pension funds, and insurance agencies rely on actuaries to develop models to assess areas of risk and devise policies to mitigate potential future challenges.
Actuarial gain or loss refers to an increase or a decrease in the projections used to value a corporation’s defined benefit pension plan obligations. The actuarial assumptions of a pension plan are directly affected by the discount rate used to calculate the present value of benefit payments and the expected rate of return on plan assets. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) SFAS No. 158 requires the funding status of pension funds to be reported on the plan sponsor’s balance sheet. This means there are periodic updates to the pension obligations, the fund performance and the financial health of the plan. Depending on plan participation rates, market performance and other factors, the pension plan may experience an actuarial gain or loss in their projected benefit obligation.
While those accounting rules require pension assets and liabilities to be marked to market on an entity’s balance sheet, they allow actuarial gains and losses, or changes to actuarial assumptions, to be amortized through comprehensive income in shareholders’ equity rather than flowing directly through the income statement.
Key Takeaways
Actuarial gains and losses are created when the assumptions underlying a company’s projected benefit obligation change.
Accounting rules require companies to disclose both the pension obligations (liabilities) and the assets meant to cover them. This shows investors the overall health of the pension fund.
All defined benefits pension plans will see periodic actuarial gains or losses as key demographic assumptions or key economic assumptions making up the model are updated.
Understanding Actuarial Gain Or Loss
Actuarial gains and losses are best understood in the context of overall pension accounting. Except where specifically noted, this definition addresses pension accounting under U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). While U.S. GAAP and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) prescribe similar principles measuring pension benefit obligations, there are key differences in how the two standards report pension cost in the income statement, particularly the treatment of actuarial gains and losses.
Funded status represents the net asset or liability related to a company’s defined benefit plans and equals the difference between the value of plan assets and the projected benefit obligation (PBO) for the plan. Valuing plan assets, which are the investments set aside for funding the plan benefits, requires judgment but does not involve the use of actuarial estimates. However, measuring the PBO requires the use of actuarial estimates, and it is these actuarial estimates that give rise to actuarial gains and losses.
There are two primary types of assumptions: economic assumptions that model how market forces affect the plan and demographic assumptions that model how participant behavior is expected to affect the benefits paid. Key economic assumptions include the interest rate used to discount future cash outflows, expected rate of return on plan assets and expected salary increases. Key demographic assumptions include life expectancy, anticipated service periods and expected retirement ages.
Actuarial Gains and Losses Create Volatility in Results
From period to period, a change in an actuarial assumption, particularly the discount rate, can cause a significant increase or decrease in the PBO. If recorded through the income statement, these adjustments potentially distort the comparability of financial results. Therefore, under U.S. GAAP, these adjustments are recorded through other comprehensive income in shareholders’ equity and are amortized into the income statement over time. Under IFRS, these adjustments are recorded through other comprehensive income but are not amortized into the income statement.
Footnote Disclosures Contain Useful Information About Actuarial Assumptions
Accounting rules require detailed disclosures related to pension assets and liabilities, including period-to-period activity in the accounts and the key assumptions used to measure funded status. These disclosures allow financial statement users to understand how a company’s pension plans affect financial position and results of operations relative to prior periods and other companies.
The term “annuity” refers to an insurance contract issued and distributed by financial institutions with the intention of paying out invested funds in a fixed income stream in the future. Investors invest in or purchase annuities with monthly premiums or lump-sum payments. The holding institution issues a stream of payments in the future for a specified period of time or for the remainder of the annuitant’s life. Annuities are mainly used for retirement purposes and help individuals address the risk of outliving their savings.
Key Takeaways
Annuities are financial products that offer a guaranteed income stream, usually for retirees.
The accumulation phase is the first stage of an annuity, whereby investors fund the product with either a lump sum or periodic payments.
The annuitant begins receiving payments after the annuitization period for a fixed period or for the rest of their life.
Annuities can be structured into different kinds of instruments, which gives investors flexibility.
These products can be categorized into immediate and deferred annuities and may be structured as fixed or variable.
How an Annuity Works
Annuities are designed to provide a steady cash flow for people during their retirement years and to alleviate the fears of outliving their assets. Since these assets may not be enough to sustain their standard of living, some investors may turn to an insurance company or other financial institution to purchase an annuity contract.
As such, these financial products are appropriate for investors, who are referred to as annuitants, who want stable, guaranteed retirement income. Because invested cash is illiquid and subject to withdrawal penalties, it is not recommended for younger individuals or for those with liquidity needs to use this financial product.
An annuity goes through several different phases and periods. These are called:
The accumulation phase, the period of time when an annuity is being funded and before payouts begin. Any money invested in the annuity grows on a tax-deferred basis during this stage.
The annuitization phase, which kicks in once payments commence.
These financial products can be immediate or deferred. Immediate annuities are often purchased by people of any age who have received a large lump sum of money, such as a settlement or lottery win, and who prefer to exchange it for cash flows into the future. Deferred annuities are structured to grow on a tax-deferred basis and provide annuitants with guaranteed income that begins on a date they specify.
Annuities often come with complicated tax considerations, so it’s important to understand how they work. As with any other financial product, be sure to consult with a professional before you purchase an annuity contract.
Annuity products are regulated by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA). Agents or brokers selling annuities need to hold a state-issued life insurance license, and also a securities license in the case of variable annuities. These agents or brokers typically earn a commission based on the notional value of the annuity contract.
Special Considerations
Annuities usually have a surrender period. Annuitants cannot make withdrawals during this time, which may span several years, without paying a surrender charge or fee. Investors must consider their financial requirements during this time period. For example, if a major event requires significant amounts of cash, such as a wedding, then it might be a good idea to evaluate whether the investor can afford to make requisite annuity payments.
Contracts also have an income rider that ensures a fixed income after the annuity kicks in. There are two questions that investors should ask when they consider income riders:
At what age do they need the income? Depending on the duration of the annuity, the payment terms and interest rates may vary.
What are the fees associated with the income rider? While there are some organizations that offer the income rider free of charge, most have fees associated with this service.
Many insurance companies will allow recipients to withdraw up to 10% of their account value without paying a surrender fee. However, if you withdraw more than that, you may end up paying a penalty, even if the surrender period has already lapsed. There are also tax implications for withdrawals before age 59 and a half.
Because of the potentially high cost of withdrawals, some hard-up annuitants may opt to sell their annuity payments instead. This is similar to borrowing against any other income stream: the annuitant receives a lump sum, and in exchange gives up their right to some (or all) of their future annuity payments.
Individuals who invest in annuities cannot outlive their income stream, which hedges longevity risk. So long as the purchaser understands that they are trading a liquid lump sum for a guaranteed series of cash flows, the product is appropriate. Some purchasers hope to cash out an annuity in the future at a profit, however, this is not the intended use of the product.
Types of Annuities
Annuities can be structured according to a wide array of details and factors, such as the duration of time that payments from the annuity can be guaranteed to continue. As mentioned above, annuities can be created so that payments continue so long as either the annuitant or their spouse (if survivorship benefit is elected) is alive. Alternatively, annuities can be structured to pay out funds for a fixed amount of time, such as 20 years, regardless of how long the annuitant lives.
Immediate and Deferred Annuities
Annuities can begin immediately upon deposit of a lump sum, or they can be structured as deferred benefits. The immediate payment annuity begins paying immediately after the annuitant deposits a lump sum. Deferred income annuities, on the other hand, don’t begin paying out after the initial investment. Instead, the client specifies an age at which they would like to begin receiving payments from the insurance company.
Depending on the type of annuity you choose, the annuity may or may not be able to recover some of the principal invested in the account. In the case of a straight, lifetime payout, there is no refund of the principal–the payments simply continue until the beneficiary dies. If the annuity is set for a fixed period of time, the recipient may be entitled to a refund of any remaining principal–or their heirs, if the annuitant has deceased.
Fixed and Variable Annuities
Annuities can be structured generally as either fixed or variable:
Fixed annuities provide regular periodic payments to the annuitant.
Variable annuities allow the owner to receive larger future payments if investments of the annuity fund do well and smaller payments if its investments do poorly, which provides for less stable cash flow than a fixed annuity but allows the annuitant to reap the benefits of strong returns from their fund’s investments.
While variable annuities carry some market risk and the potential to lose principal, riders and features can be added to annuity contracts—usually for an extra cost. This allows them to function as hybrid fixed-variable annuities. Contract owners can benefit from upside portfolio potential while enjoying the protection of a guaranteed lifetime minimum withdrawal benefit if the portfolio drops in value.
Other riders may be purchased to add a death benefit to the agreement or to accelerate payouts if the annuity holder is diagnosed with a terminal illness. The cost of living rider is another common rider that will adjust the annual base cash flows for inflation based on changes in the consumer price index (CPI).
Criticism of Annuities
One criticism of annuities is that they are illiquid. Deposits into annuity contracts are typically locked up for a period of time, known as the surrender period, where the annuitant would incur a penalty if all or part of that money were touched.
These periods can last anywhere from two to more than 10 years, depending on the particular product. Surrender fees can start out at 10% or more and the penalty typically declines annually over the surrender period.
Annuities vs. Life Insurance
Life insurance companies and investment companies are the two primary types of financial institutions offering annuity products. For life insurance companies, annuities are a natural hedge for their insurance products. Life insurance is bought to deal with mortality risk, which is the risk of dying prematurely. Policyholders pay an annual premium to the insurance company that will pay out a lump sum upon their death.
If the policyholder dies prematurely, the insurer pays out the death benefit at a net loss to the company. Actuarial science and claims experience allow these insurance companies to price their policies so that on average insurance purchasers will live long enough so that the insurer earns a profit. In many cases, the cash value inside of permanent life insurance policies can be exchanged via a 1035 exchange for an annuity product without any tax implications.
Annuities, on the other hand, deal with longevity risk, or the risk of outliving one’s assets. The risk to the issuer of the annuity is that annuity holders will survive to outlive their initial investment. Annuity issuers may hedge longevity risk by selling annuities to customers with a higher risk of premature death.
Example of an Annuity
A life insurance policy is an example of a fixed annuity in which an individual pays a fixed amount each month for a pre-determined time period (typically 59.5 years) and receives a fixed income stream during their retirement years.
An example of an immediate annuity is when an individual pays a single premium, say $200,000, to an insurance company and receives monthly payments, say $5,000, for a fixed time period afterward. The payout amount for immediate annuities depends on market conditions and interest rates.
Annuities can be a beneficial part of a retirement plan, but annuities are complex financial vehicles. Because of their complexity, many employers don’t offer them as part of an employee’s retirement portfolio.
However, the passage of the Setting Every Community Up for Retirement Enhancement (SECURE) Act, signed into law by President Donald Trump in late December 2019, loosens the rules on how employers can select annuity providers and includes annuity options within 401(k) or 403(b) investment plans. The easement of these rules may trigger more annuity options open to qualified employees in the near future.
Who Buys Annuities?
Annuities are appropriate financial products for individuals seeking stable, guaranteed retirement income. Because the lump sum put into the annuity is illiquid and subject to withdrawal penalties, it is not recommended for younger individuals or for those with liquidity needs to use this financial product. Annuity holders cannot outlive their income stream, which hedges longevity risk.
What Is a Non-Qualified Annuity?
Annuities can be purchased with either pre-tax or after-tax dollars. A non-qualified annuity is one that has been purchased with after-tax dollars. A qualified annuity is one that has been purchased with pre-tax dollars. Qualified plans include 401(k) plans and 403(b) plans. Only the earnings of a non-qualified annuity are taxed at the time of withdrawal, not the contributions, as they are after-tax money.
What Is an Annuity Fund?
An annuity fund is the investment portfolio in which an annuity holder’s funds are invested. The annuity fund earns returns, which correlate to the payout that an annuity holder receives. When an individual buys an annuity from an insurance company, they pay a premium. The premium is invested by the insurance company into an investment vehicle that contains stocks, bonds, and other securities, which is the annuity fund.
What Is the Surrender Period?
The surrender period is the amount of time an investor must wait before they can withdraw funds from an annuity without facing a penalty. Withdrawals made before the end of the surrender period can result in a surrender charge, which is essentially a deferred sales fee. This period generally spans several years. Investors can incur a significant penalty if they withdraw the invested amount before the surrender period is over.
What Are Common Types of Annuities?
Annuities are generally structured as either fixed or variable instruments. Fixed annuities provide regular periodic payments to the annuitant and are often used in retirement planning. Variable annuities allow the owner to receive larger future payments if investments of the annuity fund do well and smaller payments if its investments do poorly. This provides for less stable cash flow than a fixed annuity but allows the annuitant to reap the benefits of strong returns from their fund’s investments.
