What Is Arbitrage?

Arbitrage is the simultaneous purchase and sale of the same or similar asset in different markets in order to profit from tiny differences in the asset’s listed price. It exploits short-lived variations in the price of identical or similar financial instruments in different markets or in different forms.

Arbitrage exists as a result of market inefficiencies, and it both exploits those inefficiencies and resolves them.

Understanding Arbitrage

Arbitrage can be used whenever any stock, commodity, or currency may be purchased in one market at a given price and simultaneously sold in another market at a higher price. The situation creates an opportunity for a risk-free profit for the trader.

Arbitrage provides a mechanism to ensure that prices do not deviate substantially from fair value for long periods of time. With advancements in technology, it has become extremely difficult to profit from pricing errors in the market. Many traders have computerized trading systems set to monitor fluctuations in similar financial instruments. Any inefficient pricing setups are usually acted upon quickly, and the opportunity is eliminated, often in a matter of seconds.

Examples of Arbitrage

As a straightforward example of arbitrage, consider the following: The stock of Company X is trading at $20 on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), while, at the same moment, it is trading for $20.05 on the London Stock Exchange (LSE).

A trader can buy the stock on the NYSE and immediately sell the same shares on the LSE, earning a profit of 5 cents per share.

The trader can continue to exploit this arbitrage until the specialists on the NYSE run out of inventory of Company X’s stock, or until the specialists on the NYSE or the LSE adjust their prices to wipe out the opportunity.

A More Complicated Arbitrage Example

A trickier example can be found in currencies markets using triangular arbitrage. In this case, the trader converts one currency to another, converts that second currency to a third bank, and finally converts the third currency back to the original currency.

Suppose you have $1 million and you are provided with the following exchange rates: USD/EUR = 1.1586, EUR/GBP = 1.4600, and USD/GBP = 1.6939.

With these exchange rates, there is an arbitrage opportunity:

1. Sell dollars to buy euros: $1 million ÷ 1.1586 = €863,110
2. Sell euros for pounds: €863,100 ÷ 1.4600 = £591,171
3. Sell pounds for dollars: £591,171 × 1.6939 = $1,001,384
4. Subtract the initial investment from the final amount: $1,001,384 – $1,000,000 = $1,384

From these transactions, you would receive an arbitrage profit of $1,384 (assuming no transaction costs or taxes).

The Bottom Line

Arbitrage is a condition where you can simultaneously buy and sell the same or similar product or asset at different prices, resulting in a risk-free profit.

Economic theory states that arbitrage should not be able to occur because if markets are efficient, there would be no such opportunities to profit. However, in reality, markets can be inefficient and arbitrage can happen. When arbitrageurs identify and then correct such mispricings (by buying them low and selling them high), though, they work to move prices back in line with market efficiency. This means that any arbitrage opportunities that do occur are short-lived.

There are many different arbitrage strategies that exist, some involving complex interrelationships between different assets or securities.

Correction—April 9, 2022: A previous version of this article had miscalculated the complicated arbitrage example.

What Is Appreciation?

Appreciation, in general terms, is an increase in the value of an asset over time. The increase can occur for a number of reasons, including increased demand or weakening supply, or as a result of changes in inflation or interest rates. This is the opposite of depreciation, which is a decrease in value over time.

How Appreciation Works

Appreciation can be used to refer to an increase in any type of asset, such as a stock, bond, currency, or real estate. For example, the term capital appreciation refers to an increase in the value of financial assets such as stocks, which can occur for reasons such as improved financial performance of the company.

Just because the value of an asset appreciates does not necessarily mean its owner realizes the increase. If the owner revalues the asset at its higher price on their financial statements, this represents a realization of the increase.

Another type of appreciation is currency appreciation. The value of a country’s currency can appreciate or depreciate over time in relation to other currencies.

How to Calculate the Appreciation Rate

The appreciation rate is virtually the same as the compound annual growth rate (CAGR). Thus, you take the ending value, divide by the beginning value, then take that result to 1 dividend by the number of holding periods (e.g. years). Finally, you subtract one from the result. 

 However, in order to calculate the appreciation rate that means you need to know the initial value of the investment and the future value. You also need to know how long the asset will appreciate.

For example, Rachel buys a home for $100,000 in 2016. In 2021, the value has increased to $125,000. The home has appreciated by 25% [($125,000 – $100,000) / $100,000] during these five years. The appreciate rate (or CAGR) is 4.6% [($125,000 / $100,000)^(1/5) – 1].

Appreciation vs. Depreciation

Appreciation is also used in accounting when referring to an upward adjustment of the value of an asset held on a company’s accounting books. The most common adjustment on the value of an asset in accounting is usually a downward one, known as depreciation.

Certain assets are given to appreciation, while other assets tend to depreciate over time. As a general rule, assets that have a finite useful life depreciate rather than appreciate.

Depreciation is typically done as the asset loses economic value through use, such as a piece of machinery being used over its useful life. While appreciation of assets in accounting is less frequent, assets such as trademarks may see an upward value revision due to increased brand recognition.

Real estate, stocks, and precious metals represent assets purchased with the expectation that they will be worth more in the future than at the time of purchase. By contrast, automobiles, computers, and physical equipment gradually decline in value as they progress through their useful lives.

Example of Capital Appreciation

An investor purchases a stock for $10 and the stock pays an annual dividend of $1, equating to a dividend yield of 10%. A year later, the stock is trading at $15 per share and the investor has received the dividend of $1.

The investor has a return of $5 from capital appreciation as the price of the stock went from the purchase price or cost basis of $10 to a current market value of $15. In percentage terms, the stock price increase led to a return from capital appreciation of 50%. The dividend income return is $1, equating to a return of 10% in line with the original dividend yield. The return from capital appreciation combined with the return from the dividend leads to a total return on the stock of $6 or 60%.

Example of Currency Appreciation

China’s ascension onto the world stage as a major economic power has corresponded with price swings in the exchange rate for its currency, the yuan. Beginning in 1981, the currency rose steadily against the dollar until 1996, when it plateaued at a value of $1 equaling 8.28 yuan until 2005. The dollar remained relatively strong during this period. It meant cheaper manufacturing costs and labor for American companies, who migrated to the country in droves.

It also meant that American goods were competitive on the world stage as well as the U.S. due to their cheap labor and manufacturing costs. In 2005, however, China’s yuan reversed course and appreciated 33% in value against the dollar. As of May 2021, it’s still near that retraced level, trading at 6.4 yuan.

Appreciation FAQs

What Is an Appreciating Asset?

An appreciating asset is any asset which value is increasing. For example, appreciating assets can be real estate, stocks, bonds, and currency.

What Is Appreciation Rate?

Appreciation rate is another word for growth rate. The appreciation rate is the rate at which an asset’s value grows.

What Is a Good Home Appreciation Rate?

A good appreciation rate is relative to the asset and risk involved. What might be a good appreciation rate for real estate is different than what is a good appreciation rate for a certain currency given the risk involved.

What Is Meant by Capital Appreciation?

Capital appreciation is the increase in the value or price of an asset. This can include stocks, real estate, or the like.  

The Bottom Line

Appreciation is the rise in the value of an asset, such as currency or real estate. It’s the opposite of depreciation, which reduces the value of an asset over its useful life. Increases in value can be attributed to interest rate changes, supply and demand changes, or various other reasons. 

What Is an Appraisal?

An appraisal is a valuation of property, such as real estate, a business, collectible, or an antique, by the estimate of an authorized person. The authorized appraiser must have a designation from a regulatory body governing the jurisdiction of the appraiser. Appraisals are typically used for insurance and taxation purposes or to determine a possible selling price for an item or property.

Understanding Appraisals

Appraisals are used in many types of transactions, including real estate. If a home valuation, for example, comes in below the amount of the purchase price, mortgage lenders are likely to decline to fund the deal. Unless the prospective buyer is willing and able to come up with the difference between the appraised value and the lender’s financing offer, the transaction will not go forward.

The appraiser can use any number of valuation methods to determine the appropriate value of an item or property, including comparing the current market value of similar properties or objects.

Appraisals are also done for tax purposes when determining the value of charitable donations for itemized deductions. Deductions can reduce your taxes owed to the IRS by deducting the value of your donation from your taxable income.

Appraisals can also be a helpful tool in resolving conflicts between heirs to an estate by establishing the value of the real estate or personal property to be divided.

Types of Appraisals

Home Appraisals

A home valuation is necessary during the process of buying and selling a home, as well as a refinance of an existing mortgage. A refinance is when a loan or mortgage is reevaluated and updated to current interest rates and new terms.

An appraisal determines the home’s value to ensure that the price reflects the home’s condition, age, location, and features such as the number of bathrooms. Also, valuations help banks and lenders avoid loaning more money to the borrower than the house is worth.

In the event of default, when the borrower can’t make the payments anymore, the bank uses the appraisal as a valuation of the home. If the home is in foreclosure, whereby the bank takes possession of the house, it must be resold to help the lender recoup any losses from making the mortgage loan.

It’s important to remember that when a bank lends for a mortgage, it gives the full amount of the home’s value to the seller on the date it’s sold. In other words, the bank is out the money and, in return, has a promise to pay, plus interest, from the borrower. As a result, the valuation is important to the lending process since it helps the bank avoid losses and protect itself against lending more than it might be able to recover if the borrower defaults.

Collectibles or Antiques

Professional appraisals can be done for many items, including collectibles, antiques, or grandma’s silver. Ideally, you’ll want multiple valuations for an item from an accredited professional. Appraisers might charge an hourly rate or a flat fee. 

A certified appraiser’s valuation will likely be fair and unbiased, whereas the local collectible shop has an incentive to offer you less for the item. Also, owners can get an idea of an item’s value by checking collectible magazines and online appraisal websites. Most websites charge a small fee, such as $10, to value an item. Of course, obtaining a value online is done through photos of the item and is not an official valuation, but it should give you an idea of what it’s worth before proceeding. If you decide to pursue an appraisal, the American Society of Appraisers has thousands of members and is a great place to begin searching for an accredited professional.

Appraisals and Insurance

Some types of insurance policies also require appraisals of goods being insured. Homeowners’ and renters’ insurance policies protect policyholders against the loss of personal property due to theft or damage. These blanket policies cover items up to a preset dollar limit. Obtaining an appraisal of the contents of a home creates an inventory of the owner’s property and establishes its value, which helps to ensure a swift settlement if a claim is filed.

When the value of specific items exceeds a homeowners policy limit, the policyholder may wish to obtain additional insurance that covers luxury items such as jewelry or collectibles, including art objects and antiques. Before issuing personal property insurance policies for high-end items, many insurance underwriters require applicants to have the object appraised. The appraisal creates a record of the item’s existence, along with its description. It also helps establish the item’s actual value.

Some insurance contracts include an appraisal clause that specifies the owner agrees to obtain an appraisal from a mutually agreeable expert in the event of a dispute between the owner and the insurance company. Neutral appraisals can speed the resolution of a settlement and keep disputes from escalating into lengthy and expensive lawsuits.

Home Appraisal Process and Cost

The home appraisal process typically begins after a buyer makes an offer on a home and that offer is accepted by the seller. The buyer’s mortgage lender or broker may order the appraisal on their behalf, though the buyer is typically expected to pay for it out of pocket. On average, a home appraisal for a single-family property runs between $300 and $450 while appraisals for multi-family homes can start at around $500.

Once the appraisal is ordered, the appraiser will schedule a time to visit the property. The appraiser will then conduct a thorough review of the interior and exterior of the home to determine what it’s worth. This may require them to take measurements or photos of the property. Appraisals can take a few minutes to a few hours to complete, depending on the details of the home and the appraiser’s methods.

After visiting the home, the appraiser will use the information they’ve collected to create a reasonable estimate for the home’s value. At this stage, the appraiser will also look at the values of comparable homes in the area. Using these comps and what they’ve learned from visiting the home, the appraiser will prepare an appraisal report that includes a figure that represents their perceived value of the home.

A copy of this appraisal report is then shared with the buyer and the buyer’s mortgage lender. It can take anywhere from a week to 10 days for the report to be completed. Sellers can also request a copy of the report.

If a buyer disagrees with the appraisal report, they can request a reconsideration from the lender or opt to pay for a second appraisal.

How To Improve Your Home’s Appraisal Value

The appraisal process is meant to be objective, but appraisers are human. Good curb appeal and clean, uncluttered rooms send a message of a well-maintained home. And they can be achieved without a great deal of time or expense. There are some easy ways to quickly improve the appraised value of your home:

• Lean and uncluttered rooms convey the message that a home is well-maintained.
• Minor cosmetic improvements can make a big difference.
• Point out any major improvements you’ve made to the appraiser, in case they miss them.

On the other hand, you should avoid big expensive improvements just for the sake of increasing your home’s appraisal value. They generally don’t pay off.

Make sure you know your rights as well. If you hire the appraiser to determine your home’s value, the appraisal belongs to you. If you’re refinancing your mortgage and the lender hires the appraiser, the lender is required to provide you with a copy–possibly for a reasonable fee–of the appraisal and any other home value estimates.

If you think the appraiser has the value wrong, first review the written appraisal for errors. Check whether the comps the appraiser chose are reasonably similar to your home. If you still think the price is incorrect, you can appeal the valuation with your lender or ask it to order a second appraisal. 

The Bottom Line

An appraisal is an assessment of the fair market value of a property, business, antique, or even a collectible. Appraisals are used to estimate the value of items that are infrequently traded, and are often rare or unique. The authorized appraiser must have a designation from a regulatory body governing the jurisdiction of the appraiser. Appraisals can be done for many reasons such as tax purposes when valuing charitable donations, but the most familiar form of appraisal is for a property.

Home appraisals can positively or negatively impact the sale of a house or property, and so are an important part of the process of financing a house. A home appraisal is almost always a requirement when purchasing a home with a mortgage, for example, and if you are refinancing your property your lender may hire their own appraiser to make a valuation of your home.

What Is the Applicable Federal Rate (AFR)?

The applicable federal rate (AFR) is the minimum interest rate that the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) allows for private loans. Each month the IRS publishes a set of interest rates that the agency considers the minimum market rate for loans. Any interest rate that is less than the AFR would have tax implications. The IRS publishes these rates in accordance with Section 1274(d) of the Internal Revenue Code.

Understanding the Applicable Federal Rate (AFR)

The AFR is used by the IRS as a point of comparison versus the interest on loans between related parties, such as family members. If you were giving a loan to a family member, you would need to be sure that the interest rate charged is equal to or higher than the minimum applicable federal rate.

The IRS publishes three AFRs: short-term, mid-term, and long-term. Short-term AFR rates are determined from the one-month average of the market yields from marketable obligations, such as U.S. government T-bills with maturities of three years or less. Mid-term AFR rates are from obligations of maturities of more than three and up to nine years. Long-term AFR rates are from bonds with maturities of more than nine years.

Example of How to Use the AFR

As of Apr. 2022, the IRS stated that the annual short-term AFR was 1.26%, the mid-term AFR was 1.87%, and the long-term AFR was 2.25%. Please bear in mind that these AFR rates are subject to change by the IRS.

Which AFR rate to use for a family loan would depend on the length of time designated for payback. Let’s say you were giving a loan to a family member for $10,000 to be paid back in one year. You would need to charge the borrower a minimum interest rate of 1.26% for the loan. In other words, you should receive $126 in interest from the loan.

In our example above, any rate below 1.26% could trigger a taxable event. For example, let’s say you gave the same loan, but you didn’t charge any interest. By not charging any interest, you would have “foregone” $126 in interest income, and according to the IRS, it would be considered a taxable gift. Any interest rate charged below the stated AFR for the particular term of the loan would be considered foregone interest and, as a result, be taxable.

Special Considerations

When preparing to make a loan between related parties, taxpayers should consider two factors to select the correct AFR. The length of the loan should correspond to the AFRs: short-term (three years or less), mid-term (up to nine years), and long-term (more than nine years).

If the lender charges interest at a lower rate than the proper AFR, the IRS may reassess the lender and add imputed interest to the income to reflect the AFR rather than the actual amount paid by the borrower. Also, if the loan is more than the annual gift tax exclusion, it may trigger a taxable event, and income taxes may be owed. Depending on the circumstances, the IRS may also assess penalties.