What is an Aggressive Investment Strategy?

An aggressive investment strategy typically refers to a style of portfolio management that attempts to maximize returns by taking a relatively higher degree of risk. Strategies for achieving higher than average returns typically emphasize capital appreciation as a primary investment objective, rather than income or safety of principal. Such a strategy would therefore have an asset allocation with a substantial weighting in stocks and possibly little or no allocation to bonds or cash.

Aggressive investment strategies are typically thought to be suitable for young adults with smaller portfolio sizes. Because a lengthy investment horizon enables them to ride out market fluctuations, and losses early in one’s career have less impact than later, investment advisors do not consider this strategy suitable for anyone else but young adults unless such a strategy is applied to only a small portion of one’s nest-egg savings. Regardless of the investor’s age, however, a high tolerance for risk is an absolute prerequisite for an aggressive investment strategy.

Understanding Aggressive Investment Strategy

The aggressiveness of an investment strategy depends on the relative weight of high-reward, high-risk asset classes, such as equities and commodities, within the portfolio.

For example, Portfolio A which has an asset allocation of 75% equities, 15% fixed income, and 10% commodities would be considered quite aggressive, since 85% of the portfolio is weighted to equities and commodities. However, it would still be less aggressive than Portfolio B, which has an asset allocation of 85% equities and 15% commodities.

Even within the equity component of an aggressive portfolio, the composition of stocks can have a significant bearing on its risk profile. For instance, if the equity component only consists of blue-chip stocks, it would be considered less risky than if the portfolio only held small-capitalization stocks. If this is the case in the earlier example, Portfolio B could arguably be considered less aggressive than Portfolio A, even though it has 100% of its weight in aggressive assets.

Yet another aspect of an aggressive investment strategy has to do with allocation. A strategy that simply divided all available money equally into 20 different stocks could be a very aggressive strategy, but dividing all money equally into just 5 different stocks would be more aggressive still.

Aggressive Investment strategies may also include a high turnover strategy, seeking to chase stocks that show high relative performance in a short time period. The high turnover may create higher returns, but could also drive higher transaction costs, thus increasing the risk of poor performance.

Aggressive Investment Strategy and Active Management

An aggressive strategy needs more active management than a conservative “buy-and-hold” strategy, since it is likely to be much more volatile and could require frequent adjustments, depending on market conditions. More rebalancing would also be required to bring portfolio allocations back to their target levels. Volatility of the assets could lead allocations to deviate significantly from their original weights. This extra work also drives higher fees as the portfolio manager may require more staff to manage all such positions.

Recent years have seen significant pushback against active investing strategies. Many investors have pulled their assets out of hedge funds, for example, due to those managers’ underperformance. Instead, some have chosen to place their money with passive managers. These managers adhere to investing styles that often employ managing index funds for strategic rotation. In these cases, portfolios often mirror a market index, such as the S&P 500.

What Is the 30-Year Treasury?

The 30-Year Treasury is a U.S. Treasury debt obligation that has a maturity of 30 years. The 30-year Treasury used to be the bellwether U.S. bond but now most consider the 10-year Treasury to be the benchmark.

Understanding the 30-Year Treasury

The U.S. government borrows money from investors by issuing debt securities through its Treasury department. Debt instruments that can be purchased from the government include Treasury bills (T-bills), notes, and Treasury Inflation-Protected Securities (TIPS). T-bills are marketable securities issued for terms of less than a year, and Treasury notes are issued with maturities from two to 10 years.

TIPS are marketable securities whose principal is adjusted by changes in the Consumer Price Index (CPI). When there is inflation, the principal increases. When deflation sets in, the principal decreases. U.S. Treasury securities with longer-term maturities can be purchased as U.S. Savings bonds or Treasury bonds.

Special Considerations

Treasury bonds are long-term debt securities issued with a maturity of 20 years or 30 years from the issue date. These marketable securities pay interest semi-annually, or every six months until they mature. At maturity, the investor is paid the face value of the bond. The 30-year Treasury will generally pay a higher interest rate than shorter Treasuries to compensate for the additional risks inherent in the longer maturity. However, when compared to other bonds, Treasuries are relatively safe because they are backed by the U.S. government.

The price and interest rate of the 30-year Treasury bond is determined at an auction where it is set at either par, premium, or discount to par. If the yield to maturity (YTM) is greater than the interest rate, the price of the bond will be issued at a discount. If the YTM is equal to the interest rate, the price will be equal to par. Finally, if the YTM is less than the interest rate, the Treasury bond price will be sold at a premium to par. In a single auction, a bidder can buy up to $5 million in bonds by non-competitive bidding or up to 35% of the initial offering amount by competitive bidding. In addition, the bonds are sold in increments of $100 and the minimum purchase is $100.

30-Year Treasury vs. Savings Bonds

U.S. Savings bonds, specifically, Series EE Savings bonds, are non-marketable securities that earn interest for 30 years. Interest isn’t paid out periodically. Instead, interest accumulates, and the investor receives everything when they redeem the savings bond. The bond can be redeemed after one year, but if they are sold before five years from the purchase date, the investor will lose the last three months’ interest. For example, an investor who sells the Savings bond after 24 months will only receive interest for 21 months.

Because the U.S. is seen as a very low-risk borrower, many investors see 30-year Treasury interest rates as indicative of the state of the wider bond market. Normally, the interest rate decreases with greater demand for 30-year Treasury securities and rises with lower demand. The S&P U.S. Treasury Bond Current 30-Year Index is a one-security index comprising the most recently issued 30-year U.S. Treasury bond. It is a market value-weighted index that seeks to measure the performance of the Treasury bond market.

What Is Adjusted Gross Income (AGI)?

Adjusted gross income (AGI) is the figure that the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) uses to determine your income tax liability for the year. It is calculated by subtracting certain adjustments from gross income, such as business expenses, student loan interest payments, and other expenses. After calculating a taxpayer’s AGI, the next step is to subtract deductions to determine their taxable income.

The IRS also uses other income metrics, such as modified AGI (MAGI), for specific programs and retirement accounts.

Understanding Adjusted Gross Income (AGI)

As prescribed in the United States tax code, AGI is a modification of gross income. Gross income is simply the sum of all the money you earned in a year, which may include wages, dividends, capital gains, interest income, royalties, rental income, alimony, and retirement distributions, before tax or other deductions. AGI makes certain adjustments to your gross income to reach the figure on which your tax liability will be calculated.

Many U.S. states also use the AGI from federal returns to calculate how much individuals owe in state income taxes. States may modify this number further with state-specific deductions and credits.

Common Adjustments

The items subtracted from your gross income to calculate your AGI are referred to as adjustments to income, and you report them on Schedule 1 of your tax return when you file your annual tax return. Some of the most common adjustments are listed here, along with the separate tax forms on which a few of them are calculated:

• Alimony payments (for divorces filed before Jan. 1, 2019)
• Early withdrawal penalties on savings
• Educator expenses
• Employee business expenses for armed forces reservists, qualified performing artists, fee-basis state or local government officials, and employees with impairment-related work expenses (Form 2106)
• Health Savings Account (HSA) deductions (Form 8889)
• Moving expenses for members of the armed forces (Form 3903)
• Self-employed Simplified Employee Pension (SEP), Savings Incentive Match Plan for Employees of Small Employers (SIMPLE), and qualified plans
• Self-employed health insurance deduction
• Self-employment tax (the deductible portion)
• Student loan interest deduction

How to Calculate Adjusted Gross Income

If you use software to prepare your tax return, it will calculate your AGI once you input your numbers. If you calculate it yourself, you’ll begin by tallying your reported income for the year. That might include job income, as reported to the IRS by your employer on a W-2 form, plus other income, such as dividends and miscellaneous income, reported on 1099 forms.

Next, you add any taxable income from other sources, such as profit on the sale of a property, unemployment compensation, pensions, Social Security payments, or anything else that hasn’t already been reported to the IRS. Many of these income items are also listed on IRS Schedule 1.

The next step is to subtract the applicable adjustments to the income listed above from your reported income. The resulting figure is your AGI. To determine your taxable income, subtract either the standard deduction or your total itemized deductions from your AGI. In most cases, you can choose whichever gives you the most benefit.

For example, the standard deduction for tax returns for married couples filing jointly was $25,900 in 2022, rising to $27,700 in 2023, so couples whose itemized deductions exceed that amount would generally opt to itemize, while others would take the standard deduction.

The IRS provides a list of itemized deductions and the requirements for claiming them on its website. Your AGI also affects your eligibility for many of the deductions and credits available on your tax return. In general, the lower your AGI, the more significant the number of deductions and credits you will be eligible to claim, and the more you’ll be able to reduce your tax bill.

An Example of AGI Affecting Deductions

Let’s say you had some significant dental expenses during the year that weren’t reimbursed by insurance, and you’ve decided to itemize your deductions. You are allowed to deduct the portion of those expenses that exceed 7.5% of your AGI.

This means that if you report $12,000 in unreimbursed dental expenses and have an AGI of $100,000, you can deduct the amount that exceeds $7,500, which is $4,500. However, if your AGI is $50,000, the 7.5% reduction is just $3,750, and you’d be entitled to deduct a larger amount of that $12,000, in this case $8,250.

Adjusted Gross Income (AGI) vs. Modified Adjusted Gross Income (MAGI)

In addition to AGI, some tax calculations and government programs call for using what’s known as your modified adjusted gross income, or MAGI. This figure starts with your AGI, then adds back certain items, such as any deductions you take for student loan interest or tuition and fees.

Your MAGI is used to determine how much, if anything, you can contribute to a Roth individual retirement account (Roth IRA) in any given year. It is also used to calculate your income if you apply for Marketplace health insurance under the Affordable Care Act (ACA).

Many people with relatively uncomplicated financial lives find that their AGI and MAGI are the same number or very close.

Adjusted Gross Income vs. Gross Income vs. Taxable Income

Your gross income is all of the money you’ve earned in a year that isn’t exempt from taxation. This can be in the form of salary, wages, interest, dividends, capital gains, and so on.

Your adjusted gross income takes that amount and takes out certain qualified expenses and adjustments.

Taxpayers can then take either the standard deduction for their filing status or itemize the deductible expenses they paid during the year. You’re not permitted to both itemize deductions and claim the standard deduction. The result is your taxable income.

Frequently Asked Questions

The Bottom Line

Adjusted gross income, or AGI, is your gross income after it has been adjusted for certain qualified deductions that are permitted by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). These qualified deductions reduce an individual’s gross income, thus reducing the taxable income that they will ultimately have to pay taxes on. You can save money come tax season by lowering your AGI, which will lower your taxable income, in turn. However, many of the adjustments allowed for AGI are specific for particular circumstances that may not apply to everyone.

What Is After-Hours Trading?

After-hours trading is securities trading that starts at 4 p.m. U.S. Eastern Time after the major U.S. stock exchanges close. The after-hours trading session can run as late as 8 p.m., though volume typically thins out much earlier in the session. Trading in the after hours is conducted through electronic communication networks (ECNs).

Understanding After-Hours Trading

Traders and investors engage in after-hours trading for a variety of reasons. They may prefer trading with fewer market participants or their schedules may require it. They may want to take positions as a result of news that breaks after the close of the stock exchange. Or, they may want to close out a position before they leave on vacation.

Generally, after-hours trading refers to trading that takes place after normal market hours and up until about 8 pm. Premarket trading refers to trading that takes place before the start of normal market hours, generally from 7 a.m. until 9:25 a.m. Together, after-hours trading and premarket trading are referred to as extended-hours trading.

The precise times of extended-hours trading can depend on the ECN an investor uses or the financial institution where they place their orders. For instance, Wells Fargo allows after-hours trading from 4:05 p.m. ET until just 5 p.m.

Electronic markets (or ECNs) used in after-hours trading automatically attempt to match up buy and sell orders. If they can do so, trades are completed. If they can’t, trades remain unfilled.

After-hours trading typically only allows limit orders to buy, sell, or short, although a particular brokerage may be less restrictive. No stop, stop-limit, or orders with special instructions (such as fill or kill or all or none) are accepted. Moreover, orders are normally only good for the after-hours trading session in which they’re placed.

The maximum share amount per order is 25,000.

Quotes provided are limited to those available through the electronic market used. Investors may have access to other participating ECNs but it isn’t guaranteed.

Volume

In after-hours trading, the trading volume for a stock may spike on the initial release of news but most of the time thins out as the session progresses. The growth of volume generally slows significantly by 6 p.m. So, there is a substantial risk that investors will be trading illiquid stocks after-hours. 

Price

Not only does volume sometimes come at a premium in the after-hours trading sessions, so does price. It is not unusual for the spreads to be wide in the after-hours. The spread is the difference between the bid and the ask prices. Due to fewer shares trading, the spread may be significantly wider than during the normal trading session.

Participation

If liquidity and prices weren’t enough to make after-hours trading risky, the lack of participants may do the trick. That’s why certain investors and institutions may choose not to participate in after-hours trading, regardless of news or events.

It’s quite possible for a stock to fall sharply in the after hours only to rise once the regular trading session resumes the next day at 9:30 a.m. Many big institutional investors have a certain view of price action during after-hours trading sessions and express that view with their trades once the regular market re-opens.

Since volume is thin and spreads are wide in after-hours trading, it is much easier to push prices higher or lower. Fewer shares and trades are needed to make a substantial impact on a stock’s price. That’s why after-hours orders usually are restricted to limit orders. If your brokerage doesn’t restrict them, consider them anyway as a means to protect yourself from unexpected price swings and order fills.

Standard Trading vs. After-Hours Trading