What Is an Accredited Investor?

An accredited investor is an individual or a business entity that is allowed to trade securities that may not be registered with financial authorities. They are entitled to this privileged access by satisfying at least one requirement regarding their income, net worth, asset size, governance status, or professional experience.

In the U.S., the term accredited investor is used by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) under Regulation D to refer to investors who are financially sophisticated and have a reduced need for the protection provided by regulatory disclosure filings. Accredited investors include high-net-worth individuals (HNWIs), banks, insurance companies, brokers, and trusts.

Understanding Accredited Investors

Accredited investors are legally authorized to purchase securities that are not registered with regulatory authorities like the SEC. Many companies decide to offer securities to this class of accredited investors directly. Because this decision allows companies exemption from registering securities with the SEC, it can save them a lot of money.

This type of share offering is referred to as a private placement. It has the potential to present these accredited investors with a great deal of risk. Therefore authorities need to ensure that they are financially stable, experienced, and knowledgeable about their risky ventures.

When companies decide to offer their shares to accredited investors, the role of regulatory authorities is limited to verifying or offering the necessary guidelines for setting benchmarks to determine who qualifies as an accredited investor. Regulatory authorities help determine if the applicant possesses the necessary financial means and knowledge to take the risks involved in investing in unregistered securities.

Accredited investors also have privileged access to venture capital, hedge funds, angel investments, and deals involving complex and higher-risk investments and instruments.

Requirements for Accredited Investors

The regulations for accredited investors vary from one jurisdiction to the other and are often defined by a local market regulator or a competent authority. In the U.S, the definition of an accredited investor is put forth by SEC in Rule 501 of Regulation D.

To be an accredited investor, a person must have an annual income exceeding $200,000 ($300,000 for joint income) for the last two years with the expectation of earning the same or a higher income in the current year. An individual must have earned income above the thresholds either alone or with a spouse over the last two years. The income test cannot be satisfied by showing one year of an individual’s income and the next two years of joint income with a spouse.

A person is also considered an accredited investor if they have a net worth exceeding $1 million, either individually or jointly with their spouse. This amount cannot include a primary residence. The SEC also considers a person to be an accredited investor if they are a general partner, executive officer, or director for the company that is issuing the unregistered securities.

An entity is considered an accredited investor if it is a private business development company or an organization with assets exceeding $5 million. Also, if an entity consists of equity owners who are accredited investors, the entity itself is an accredited investor. However, an organization cannot be formed with the sole purpose of purchasing specific securities.

Recent Changes to the Accredited Investor Definition

Recently, the U.S. Congress modified the definition of an accredited investor to include registered brokers and investment advisors.

On Aug. 26, 2020, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission amended the definition of an accredited investor. According to the SEC’s press release, “the amendments allow investors to qualify as accredited investors based on defined measures of professional knowledge, experience or certifications in addition to the existing tests for income or net worth. The amendments also expand the list of entities that may qualify as accredited investors, including by allowing any entity that meets an investments test to qualify.”

Among other categories, the SEC now defines accredited investors to include the following: individuals who have certain professional certifications, designations, or credentials; individuals who are “knowledgeable employees” of a private fund; and SEC- and state-registered investment advisors.

Purpose of Accredited Investor Requirements 

Any regulatory authority of a market is tasked with both promoting investment and safeguarding investors. On one hand, regulators have a vested interest in promoting investments in risky ventures and entrepreneurial activities because they have the potential to emerge as multi-baggers in the future. Such initiatives are risky, may be focused on concept-only research and development activities without any marketable product, and may have a high chance of failure. If these ventures are successful, they offer a big return to their investors. However, they also have a high probability of failure.

On the other hand, regulators need to protect less-knowledgeable, individual investors who may not have the financial cushion to absorb high losses or understand the risks associated with their investments. Therefore, the provision of accredited investors allows access for both investors who are financially well-equipped, as well as investors who are knowledgeable and experienced.

There is no formal process for becoming an accredited investor. Rather, it is the responsibility of the sellers of such securities to take a number of different steps in order to verify the status of entities or individuals who wish to be treated as accredited investors. 

Individuals or parties who want to be accredited investors can approach the issuer of the unregistered securities. The issuer may ask the applicant to respond to a questionnaire to determine if the applicant qualifies as an accredited investor. The questionnaire may require various attachments: account information, financial statements, and a balance sheet to verify the qualification. The list of attachments can extend to tax returns, W-2 forms, salary slips, and even letters from reviews by CPAs, tax attorneys, investment brokers, or advisors. Additionally, the issuers may also evaluate an individual’s credit report for additional assessment.

Example of an Accredited Investor

For example, suppose there is an individual whose income was $150,000 for the last three years. They reported a primary residence value of $1 million (with a mortgage of $200,000), a car worth $100,000 (with an outstanding loan of $50,000), a 401(k) account with $500,000, and a savings account with $450,000. While this individual fails the income test, they are an accredited investor according to the test on net worth, which cannot include the value of an individual’s primary residence. Net worth is calculated as assets minus liabilities.

This person’s net worth is exactly $1 million. This involves a calculation of their assets (other than their primary residence) of $1,050,000 ($100,000 + $500,000 + $450,000) less a car loan equaling $50,000. Since they meet the net worth requirement, they qualify to be an accredited investor.

The Bottom Line

The accredited investor rules are designed to protect potential investors with limited financial knowledge from risky ventures and losses they may be ill equipped to withstand. But on the flip side, it gives people already starting off with large financial assets a major advantage over those with more modest assets.

What Is the Acid-Test Ratio?

The acid-test ratio, commonly known as the quick ratio, uses a firm’s balance sheet data as an indicator of whether it has sufficient short-term assets to cover its short-term liabilities.

Understanding the Acid-Test Ratio

In certain situations, analysts prefer to use the acid-test ratio rather than the current ratio (also known as the working capital ratio) because the acid-test method ignores assets such as inventory, which may be difficult to quickly liquidate. The acid test ratio is thus a more conservative metric.

Companies with an acid-test ratio of less than 1 do not have enough liquid assets to pay their current liabilities and should be treated with caution. If the acid-test ratio is much lower than the current ratio, it means that a company’s current assets are highly dependent on inventory.

This is not a bad sign in all cases, however, as some business models are inherently dependent on inventory. Retail stores, for example, may have very low acid-test ratios without necessarily being in danger. The acceptable range for an acid-test ratio will vary among different industries, and you’ll find that comparisons are most meaningful when analyzing peer companies in the same industry as each other.

For most industries, the acid-test ratio should exceed 1. On the other hand, a very high ratio is not always good. It could indicate that cash has accumulated and is idle, rather than being reinvested, returned to shareholders, or otherwise put to productive use.

Some tech companies generate massive cash flows and accordingly have acid-test ratios as high as 7 or 8. While this is certainly better than the alternative, these companies have drawn criticism from activist investors who would prefer that shareholders receive a portion of the profits.

Calculating the Acid-Test Ratio

The numerator of the acid-test ratio can be defined in various ways, but the main consideration should be gaining a realistic view of the company’s liquid assets. Cash and cash equivalents should definitely be included, as should short-term investments, such as marketable securities.

Accounts receivable are generally included, but this is not appropriate for every industry. In the construction industry, for example, accounts receivable may take much more time to recover than is standard practice in other industries, so including it could make a firm’s financial position seem much more secure than it is in reality.

The formula is:

$\begin{aligned} &\text{Acid Test} = \frac{ \text{Cash} + \text{Marketable Securities} + \text{A/R} }{ \text{Current Liabilities} } \\ &\textbf{where:} \\ &\text{A/R} = \text{Accounts receivable} \\ \end{aligned}$​Acid Test=Current LiabilitiesCash+Marketable Securities+A/R​where:A/R=Accounts receivable​

Another way to calculate the numerator is to take all current assets and subtract illiquid assets. Most importantly, inventory should be subtracted, keeping in mind that this will negatively skew the picture for retail businesses because of the amount of inventory they carry. Other elements that appear as assets on a balance sheet should be subtracted if they cannot be used to cover liabilities in the short term, such as advances to suppliers, prepayments, and deferred tax assets.

The ratio’s denominator should include all current liabilities, which are debts and obligations that are due within one year. It is important to note that time is not factored into the acid-test ratio. If a company’s accounts payable are nearly due but its receivables won’t come in for months, that company could be on much shakier ground than its ratio would indicate. The opposite can also be true.

Acid-Test Ratio Example

A company’s acid-test ratio can be calculated using its balance sheet. Below is an abbreviated version of Apple Inc.’s (AAPL) balance sheet as of Jan. 27, 2022, showing the components of the company’s current assets and current liabilities (all figures in millions of dollars):

What Is an Accounting Method?

An accounting method refers to the rules a company follows in reporting revenues and expenses. The two primary methods of accounting are accrual accounting (generally used by companies) and cash accounting (generally used by individuals).

Cash accounting reports revenues and expenses as they are received and paid through cash inflows and outflows; accrual accounting reports them as they are earned and incurred through sales and purchases on credit and by using accounts receivable & accounts payable. Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) requires accrual accounting.

Understanding an Accounting Method

All businesses need to keep accounting records. Public companies are required to do so. Accounting allows a business to monitor every aspect of its finances, from revenues to costs to taxes and more. Without accurate accounting, a business would not know where it stood financially, most likely resulting in its demise.

Accounting is also needed to pay accurate taxes to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). If the IRS ever conducts an audit on a company, it looks at a company’s accounting records and methods. Furthermore, the IRS requires taxpayers to choose an accounting method that accurately reflects their income and to be consistent in their choice of accounting method from year to year.

This is because switching between methods would potentially allow a company to manipulate revenue to minimize their tax burdens. As such, IRS approval is required to change methods. Companies may use a hybrid of the two methods, which is allowable under IRS rules if specified requirements are met.

Types of Accounting Methods

Cash Accounting

Cash accounting is an accounting method that is relatively simple and is commonly used by small businesses. In cash accounting, transactions are only recorded when cash is spent or received.

In cash accounting, a sale is recorded when the payment is received and an expense is recorded only when a bill is paid. The cash accounting method is, of course, the method most people use in managing their personal finances and it is appropriate for businesses up to a certain size.

If a business generates more than $25 million in average annual gross receipts for the preceding three years, however, it must use the accrual method, according to Internal Revenue Service rules.

Accrual Accounting

Accrual accounting is based on the matching principle, which is intended to match the timing of revenue and expense recognition. By matching revenues with expenses, the accrual method gives a more accurate picture of a company’s true financial condition.

Under the accrual method, transactions are recorded when they are incurred rather than awaiting payment. This means a purchase order is recorded as revenue even though the funds are not received immediately. The same goes for expenses in that they are recorded even though no payment has been made.

Example of an Accounting Method

The value of accrual accounting becomes more evident for large, complex businesses. A construction company, for example, may undertake a long-term project and may not receive complete cash payments until the project is complete.

Under cash accounting rules, the company would incur many expenses but would not recognize revenue until cash was received from the customer. So, the accounting book of the company would look weak until the revenue actually came in. If this company was looking for debt financing from a bank, for example, the cash accounting method makes it look like a poor bet because it is incurring expenses but no revenue.

Under accrual accounting, the construction company would recognize a percentage of revenue and expenses corresponding to the portion of the project that was complete. This is known as the percentage of completion method. How much actual cash coming into the company, however, would be evident in the cash flow statement. This method would show a prospective lender a much more complete and accurate picture of the company’s revenue pipeline.

What Is Accretion?

Accretion is the gradual and incremental growth of assets and earnings due to business expansion, a company’s internal growth, or a merger or acquisition. 

In finance, accretion is also the accumulation of the additional income an investor expects to receive after purchasing a bond at a discount and holding it until maturity. The most well-known applications of financial accretion include zero-coupon bonds or cumulative preferred stock.

Understanding Accretion

In corporate finance, accretion is the creation of value through organic growth or through a transaction. For example, when new assets are acquired at a discount or for a cost that is below their perceived current market value (CMV). Acccretion can also occur by acquiring assets that are anticipated to grow in value after the transaction.

In securities markets, purchasing bonds below their face or par value is considered buying at a discount, whereas purchasing above the face value is known as buying at a premium. In finance, accretion adjusts the cost basis from the purchase amount (discount) to the anticipated redemption amount at maturity. For example, if a bond is purchased for an amount totaling 80% of the face amount, the accretion is 20%.

Factoring in Bond Accounting

As interest rates increase, the value of existing bonds declines, which means that bonds trading in the market decline in price to reflect the interest rate increase. Since all bonds mature at the face amount, the investor recognizes additional income on a bond purchased at a discount, and that income is recognized using accretion.

Bond Accretion (Finance)

The rate of accretion is determined by dividing the discount by the number of years in the term. In the case of zero coupon bonds, the interest acquired is not compounding. While the bond’s value increases based on the agreed-upon interest rate, it must be held for the agreed-upon term before it can be cashed out.

Assume that an investor purchased a $1,000 bond for $860 and the bond matures in 10 years. Between the bond’s purchase and maturity dates, the investor needs to recognize additional income of $140. When the bond is purchased, the $140 is posted to a discount on the bond account. Over the next 10 years, a portion of the $140 is reclassified into the bond income account each year, and the entire $140 is posted to income by the maturity date.

Earnings Accretion (Accounting)

The earnings-per-share (EPS) ratio is defined as earnings available to common shareholders divided by average common shares outstanding, and accretion refers to an increase in a firm’s EPS due to an acquisition.

Examples of Accretion

For example, assume that a firm generates $2,000,000 in available earnings for common shareholders and that 1,000,000 shares are outstanding; the EPS ratio is $2. The company issues 200,000 shares to purchase a company that generates $600,000 in earnings for common shareholders. The new EPS for the combined companies is computed by dividing its $2,600,000 earnings by 1,200,000 outstanding shares, or $2.17. Investment professionals refer to the additional earnings as accretion due to the purchase.

As another example, if a person purchases a bond with a value of $1,000 for the discounted price of $750 with the understanding it will be held for 10 years, the deal is considered accretive. The bond pays out the initial investment plus interest. Depending on the type of bond purchase, interest may be paid out at regular intervals, such as annually, or in a lump sum upon maturity. If the bond purchase is a zero-coupon bond, there is no interest accrual.

Instead, it is purchased at a discount, such as the initial $750 investment for a bond with a face value of $1,000. The bond pays the original face value, also known as the accreted value, of $1,000 in a lump sum upon maturity.

A primary example within corporate finance is the acquisition of one company by another. First, assume the earnings per share of Corporation X is listed as $100, and earnings per share of Corporation Y is listed as $50. When Corporation X acquires Corporation Y, Corporations X’s earnings per share increase to $150. This deal is 50% accretive due to the increase in value.

However, sometimes, long-term debt instruments, like car loans, become short-term instruments when the obligation is expected to be fully repaid within one year. If a person takes out a five-year car loan, the debt becomes a short-term instrument after the fourth year.